Sample Material of UPSC Mains Philosophy (Optional) Study Kit

Topic: Socio Political Philosophy (Monarchy, Theocracy and Democracy)

Monarchy

The word monarchy has been device from the latin word mono and archia’ mono means one and ‘archia’ means rule. Therefore literally monarchy means rule of one person. Herodobus and some ancient great poets define Monarchy as the mile of one person. Aristotle while making the classification of governments define monarchy as the rule of one person for the welfare of society. Bodin and Hobbes define monarchy in terms of sovereignty according to them when sovereignty is vested in one person it is monarchy.

But today monarchy has a much specific meaning. Monarchy is a particular type of person rule which is hereditary in nature. There are three features of monarchy 1) It is the hereditary rule of one person. 2) Supreme authority is vested in the monarch either really or symbolically. 3) Divinity, which means monarchy associates itself with go or some divine authority.

Types of Monarchy

1) Absolute
2) Limited or constitutional Monarchy

In absolute monarchy there is no limitation on the powers of the monarch. Executive, legislative and Judiciary powers are concentrated in the monarch. Therefore there is no scope for seperation of powers. In absolute monarchy, the monarch is head of the state as well as the government—Monarch reigns as well rules In constitutional monarchy, the monarch is only the symbolic head. Instead of concentration of power in actual practice, powers are separated. In constitutional monarchy the king is only the nominal head and his powers are exercised by some one else therefore in constitutional monarchy the monarch is only the head of state but not the head of government. He reigns but does not rule Britain is today the most important example of constitutional monarchy. Regarding British Monarchy it is said that, the king can do no wrong”

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Criticisms

i) Monarchy is a system which is based on concentration of power but in the 21st century Democracy is the ruling political system which supports decentralisation .
ii) Concentration of power may lead to authoritarianism.
iii) Monarchy is based on discretionary rule by the monarch but contemporary age is the age of rule of law.
iv) Monarch is morally also unjustified because in monarch there are subject whereas in democracy there are citizens subjects are different from citizens because citizens have both rights and duties but subjects have only duties from moral perspective the maximum development of personality of the individual is possible only if he has both rights and duties. It is morally insufficient because it is based on the notion inequality, therefore monarch and his supporters are considered superior to common people in this way each individual cannot be treated as an end in itself, which according to Kant is the highest principle of morality.

Monarchy deprives common people of liberty therefore it is not suited to the development of personality.

Relevance of Monarchy

Today absolute Monarch is out of fashion but constitutional monarchy which has adjusted itself with democracy is relevant in certain ways. Monarch is above politics while in a Republic, head of the state becomes as party to party politics.

i) Monarch is the symbol of unity of the unity of the nation.
ii) Monarch provides political stability
iii) Monarchy is today less expensive

Therefore today though absolute monarchy is irrelevant but at some places constitutional monarchy is still relevant. This is the reason that today absolute monarchies are either abolished or they are constitutionalised.
Monarchy

1) Rule of King
2) Absolute, authoritarian
3) Subjects (Duties)
4) Concentration of power
5) Hereditary
6) Inequality

Democracy

1) Rule of people
2) Constitution is supreme limited government
3) Citizens (Right’s Duties)
4) Decentralization of power
5) Representation through elections
6) Equality

THEOCRACY

The word theocracy was coined by Josephus Flavius. He defines theocracy as a form of government which is different from other rules like Monarchy and Democracy because it is based on religion literally the word theocracy has been derived from Latin words, ‘theo’ and ‘cracia’ which means ‘rule of god : But today theocracy has specific meaning. Usually the term theocracy is used against the notion of secular state when a state is run on the base of principles of religion’ ultimate sovereignty is vested neither in the god and state has some official religion then it is called theocracy.

Types of Theocracy

1) Hierocracy theocracy (Vetican city)
2) Royal theocracy (Egypt, Mesopotamia’s Arasia)
3) General theocracy

Hierocracy means that form of theocracy where the state is run by the religious functionary or clergy.

In Royal theocracy, there is a monarch which rules the state but state is ruled on the basis of principles of Religion. In general theocracy, state is run on the basic of principles of religion in broader sense Hierocracy and royal theocracy are the parts of general theocracy. But general theocracy includes some other systems also like the theocracy of Iran. From a second viewpoint, theoracies are of two types i) monistic and ii) Dualistic. In monistic theocracy, religious hierarchy and administrative hierarchy are identical or one. In Dualistic theocracy, religions hierarchy are different but administrative hierarchy eg- Vatican city for monistic, Iran for Dualistic.

Emergence of Theocracy

In the last quarter of 20th century and 1st decade of 21st century. We see the emergence of theocracies in some parts of the world. Which is a surprising fact. In the last quarter of 20th century there was a great reaction against the process of secularisation. Process of secularisation emphasized on reason, scientific temper but ultimately it was seen that reason cannot answer al the questions so there was reemphasis on religion. With the completion of the process of decolonization many new states were created in Asia and Africa and the significance of these. Societies increased. There was a reemphasis on study of these societies. In these societies religion was playing very important role.

i) Certain internal problems of some states like existence of traditional conservative societies, illitracy, poverty also strengthned the theocratic powers.
ii) Certain new developments in International politics also strengthened theocratic forces particularly wing US hegemony erected reaction among certain parts of the world and economic lash of interest was given a religious touch.
iii) In the era of globalisation, nation state is loosing its relevance and the notion of national — citizenship acted as a cementing force to unite various individuals of different religion race, caste etc. weakening of national citizenship again gave reimphasis to these factors.
iv) In philosophical terms today’s world is a place of unrest and competition. Which is creating the feeling of intolerance and to some extent the feeling of unitedness is under threat and divisive ideas like theocracy are gaining popularity.

Demerits of Theocracy

1) Theocracy is against the norms of democracy which is the most preferred system today. Theocracy negates the notion of popular sovereignty.
2) The notion of theocracy is against the notion of rule of law.
3) It is morally unjustified because it rejects the values of equality and liberty. It is against equality because certain sections of society, particularly the religious minority are treated as second grade citizen in every aspect. It is against liberty because it deprives certain individuals of religious freedom. There may be ban on freedom of press without liberty and equality proper development of individuals personality is not possible therefore theocracy is morally an inferior system.
4) Theocracy has today become a plea for author tarianism and discretionary role.
5) In contemprory era, theocracies are also blamed of supporting terrorism and fundamentalism.
6) Theocracy may hinder the process of social reform, particularly women might not be having equal citizenship in such a state.

Demerits of Theocracy

1) Theocracy is against the norms of democracy which is the most preferred system today theocracy negates the notion of popular save reignty.
2) The notion of theocracy is against the notion of rule of law.
3) It is morally unjustified because it rejects the values of equality and liberty. It is against equality because certain sections of society, particularly the religions minority are treated as second grade citizen in every aspect. It is against liberty because it deprives certain individuals of religious freedom. There may be ban on freedom of speech and expression and freedom of press. Without liberty and equality proper development of individuals personality is not possible therefore theocracy is morally an inferior system.
4) Theocracy has today become a plea for author tarianism and discretionary role.
5) In contemprory era, theocracies are also blamed of supporting terrorism and fundamentalism.
6) Theocracy may hinder the process of social reform, particularly women might not be having equal citizenship in such a state.

Theocracy

• In theocracy state essentially his an official religion.
• In theocracy religion and politics are interrelated and incase of conflict between the two, religion dominates politics.
• In theocracy minorities are treated as second grade citizens.
• In theocracy the state is ruled on the basis of religious text but a secular state is ruled by a constitution.
• In theocracy morality is based on religion.
• Theocracy is based on faith

Theocracy is exclusive, it believes in the notion of we and they and excludes certain sections.

Secularism

No state religion

• In secular state normally religion and politics are seperate and in case of conflict between the two politics dominates religion.
• In secular state minorities are treated equally and at times are given-special status
• Secular state is ruled by a written constitution.
• Secular morality prevails
• Secularism Supports reason.
• Secularism is inclusive. It includes all individuals within its domain.

Democracy

Meaning: As a form of government
Democracy as a form or Government.
Theories — Classical theory for liberal theory

• Pluralist Theory of Democracy of Polyarchy.
• Direct democracy and indirect democracy.
• Paradoxes of democracy
• Demerits of Democracy

Challenges before Democracy, conditions for success of Democracy.

Systems of values

1) Equality
2) Liberty
3) Tolerance
4) Secularism
5) As a way of life

Democracy today is most admired as well as critized system. It may be defined in limited as well as in wider sense. In limited sense democracy means a form of government or a political system where. Ultimate power is vested in people. In the words of Lincoln, democracy is a government of the people for the people and by the people literally also the word democracy has been derived from latin words demo and ………... literally it means rule of the people limited sense institutions and procedures of democracy are very important.

In limited sense, democracy is treated as a means and end is welfare of the people. In wider sense democracy along with being political system is a social system, economic and cultural system.

In wider sense, democracy is a system of values for example, liberty equality, justice, fraternity, tolerance, secularism scientific and logical outlook. In extender sense, democracy is a way of life also which means our thoughts and action should be democratic.

Democracy is an end in itself and individual. State and society all are involved for the attainment of democracy.

In extended sense democracy the ideals of democracy are more important than its institutions and procedures.

Theories of Democracy

Supporters of classical democracy look at it as a system of government. It is based on the notion of popular sovereignty. It supports various types of liberty particularly civil and political liberties like freedom of speech and expression. It supports the notion of equality but here also political legal equality is given more importance in comparison to socio-economic equalities. It is based on the theory of majority rules.

Constitutionalism— Limited government

Peaceful and constitutional means Free and fair judiciary.

Competitive party system.

Philosophically, classical theory of Democracy is based on the idea of dignity of the individual. It believes in the fundamental equality of all individuals.

Demerits

1) Democracy is a cult of incompetence) In democracy number rules over quality.
Only heads are counted but whether the head contains any wisdom or not, is not seen. In the words of H.G. wells, democracy is the government by the most ignorant and most unintellectual people therefore it is said that Democracy which respects the view of all equally is unable to decide what is right and wrong.

2) In democracy due to this number game vote bank politics dominates. Therefore instead of national policies narrow sectional politics are propagate. Due to the number game instead those, who really can serve the society ome into power therefore in the garb of democracy Certain. Vested interest might be fulfilled. According to Tellyrand, democracy is an aristocracy of blackguards.

3) Democracy is an expensive affair. Bryce has compared democracy with a committee in which seven person perform same task in seven days which can be performed by one person in one day.

4) Democracy functions on the principle of majority rule which sometimes may lead to the tyranny of majority.

5) There are many paradoxes in the theory and practice of democracy.

Merits

1) Democracy provides a responsible government therefore it acts as a safeguard against dictatorship
2) Democracy is a significant system for political education of the masses. In the words of Gettle, democracy is a school which imparts the values of citizenship.
3) Democracy provides a various rights which are unavailable in other systems.
4) Democracy is most suited form of government for plural societies like India. In such societies, Parliament becomes a platform where various varying view are shared and accommodated leading to national integration.
5) According to Mill, democracy enhances patriotism
6) According to Burke, democracy promotes world peace.

Democracy is not a perfect system. But still, it is preferred because it is better than all other existing systems, secondly many of the demerits of democracy are the result of adverse circumstances and they may be removed through proper education, economic equality, employment etc. Therefore we may conclude that democracy is the best among available systems. Churchill—”Democracy is a bad form of government but others are worse.”

Problems of Democracy

i) Illitracy
ii) Poverty
iii) Economic Disparity
iv) Regionalism
v) Casteism
vi) Growing intolerance
vii) Gender inequality
viii) Racial inequality
ix) Corruption
x) Communalism

Conditions for success of Democracy

i) Faith of manses in the ideals of Democracy.
ii) National and moral character of citizens.
iii) Education
iv) Vigilant public opinion which is reflected in the form of freedom of press. “Eternal vigilance is the price for democracy’’.
v) Economic equality.
vi) Gender equality.
vii) Racial equality.
viii) Free and fair Judiciary.
ix) Disciplined party system.
x) Dynamic leadership.
xi) Efficient civil service.
xii) Judicious majority.
xiii) Tolerant mijority.

Therefore in a nutshell we may say that the success of democracy depends on ‘double democratization’ (David Held)

Double democratisation means

i) Democratization of state this means state should be responsible, Decentralisation of power.

ii) Democratization of civil society—This means inequality based on in come sex race etc should be minimum.

Elitist Theory of Democracy— The notion of ‘elite’ believes that there are certain individuals in the society who are by birth more talented and capable than others. They are called elite. The notion of elite was developed by Mareto, Mosca, Robert Mitchels etc. In the beginning the notion of criticism came against democracy but after second world war, under the influence of behaviourism and positivism facts were given priority over values therefore thinkers like Schumpeter and karl mann heim observed the actual functioning of democracy also ultimately elite play the central role. According to schumpter this may be describe as elitist democracy. Schumpter maintains that if i) There is a competition among elites to get the votes of people and 2) if the system provides for peaceful replacement of one elite by another elite than it is Democracy.

Tenants of elitist Democracy

1) It supports natural inequality
2) They believes that in all political systems including Democracy real authority is exercised by elites to support their viewpoint they quote pare to and his notion of “circulation of elite” and Robert Mitchels’s theory of Iron law of oligarchy.”

According to pareto, circulation of elite means two things

1) Replacement of government is basically replacement of one elite by the other.
3) Within an elite group also senior members retive and new members enter therefore continuity of elite is maintained therefore according to Pareto, history is not the story of mass but it is the story of elite. All historical changes take place due to change in the elite. In the words of Pareto, history is the graveyard of elites

According to Robert Mitchell, all organizations including democratic organizations like political parties are oligarchic in nature. Therefore they are controlled by elites.

Governance is an specialized activity therefore only elite can rule not the mass. If mass rules then it is not a good rule therefore rule by the people and rule for the people do not coexist. But if we want rule for the people (good governance) then rule by the people should not be emphasized.

Supporters of elitist democracy maintain that citizens should be active only during the elections when they need to decide which elite should rule but after election they should be passive therefore they oppose all mass movements. Supporters of elitist democracy give less importance to ideology. They believe in action.

They consider leadership as the most important as peace of democracy.

Criticisms

i) The notion of elitist democracy is logically is close contradictory because democracy is rule by the people and so it cannot be elitist.
ii) Democracy believes in the value of equality but this theory supports inequality.
iii) Elitist theory ignores the philosophical aspects of democracy because it ignore democratic values
iv) Their notion of good governance is wrong because good governance is not possible without the involvement of people.
v) It is morally unjustified because it supports the notion of passive citizenship in which proper Development of personality of the individual is not possible. According to Macpherson, shumpeter’s theory degrades democracy from a moral aspiration to a market system.

Significance

1) No system can work effective without the involvement of qualitative leadership. Elitist theory successfully highlighted this point.
2) Elitist democracy, thought as an ideal theory does not has much validity but practically it is very significant.

Pluralist Democracy — (Robert Dhal) It is based on the notion of pluralism. According to pluralist theory, neither state nor individual plays important role in the process of democratic decision making but all the democratic decisions are the result of bargaining action and reaction, negation on persuastion among the various groups. Dhal syas that in democracy, decisions are not take by a particular class but they are the result of the bargaining between various classes of the society.

Main Features

i) Groups, not individual is central to democracy.
ii) The structure of society is federal. They believe in pluralist sovereignty.
iii) Support for multiparty system.
iv) Independence of Judiciary.
v) Decentralisation of decision making power

Criticisms

i) Pluralist theory will encourage separatist forces which many be a threat to national integration.
ii) It also lead to pressure politics.
iii) Pluralist democracy cannot ensure the freedom of the individual because individual is dominated by the group or organization
iv) According to elitist philosophers each organization is dominated by elites.
v) According to Marxists in a class divided society all organizations do not have equal influence therefore organizations of rich class ultimately dominate decision making process.

Significance

i) It is suitable for plural society.
ii) It is based on decentralization of power.
iii) Pluralist theory of democracy reflects the importance of organization in modern western democracies.

Direct Democracy

• People directly rule.
• Institution and procedures of democracy do not exist or if they exist they are least significant.
• No difference between ruler and the ruled.
• It was practised in the ancient Greek city states.
• It is very important as an ideal

Indirect Democracy

People rule through their representatives

• Indirect democracy cannot exist without institution and procedures.
• Clear difference between ruler and ruled.
• Most of modern democracies are indirect democracies.
• Practical importance .

Therefore today indirect- democracy is the main form of democracy but various efforts must be taken to increase the participation of people in indirect democracy …… it could reach to the ideal of direct democracy.

Paradoxes of Democracy

i) Democracy means rule by the people. Therefore in democracy people are the ruler and people are the riled which logically means there is no difference between ruler and ruled. But the idea of rule consists of two different things ruler and ruled.
ii) Democracy emphasizes on two things. Rule by the people and rule for the people which cannot coexist.
iii) Democracy rests on two pillars of liberty and equality which according to some philosophers are contradictory to each other.
iv) Democracy emphasizes on the autonomy of the individual, but when it is used as a political system then instead of individual groups or majority becomes more important individuals autonomous opinion are important only if they are in accordance with opinion of the majority.
v) In most of the modern democracies we see a great contradiction between formal rights and actual rights (David held)
vi) In most of the modern democracies we see a contradiction between political liberty and economic equality.
vii) The most of the modern democracies claim to be rule by the majority but in actual practice it becomes a minority rule because (a) percentage of voting is very law (b) due to first past the post system, the candidate getting maximum number of vote from among the available candidate gets elected though he might not have secured the majority vote.

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