1. Articles

1. Articles: There are three articles in English—a, an and the. A and an are called indefinite article.The is the definite article. An article is placed before a noun. If there is an adjective before a noun, the article is placed before the adjective:

a train,     a fast train,      an incident,      an unusual incident

Note: We can never use a singular count noun alone, that is, without a/an/the/my/some/any etc.

2. A/an: Singular count nouns take the indefinite article a/an with them:

a ball      an egg      a dog      an elephant
Uncount nouns do not generally take an article with them. we do not generally say
a milk     a beauty     a wisdom
for milk, beauty, wisdom cannot be counted.

3. We use a with singular count nouns beginning with a consonant sound:

a girl     a map      a university      a union     a one-sided affair      a one-rupee note

Note: That the words university, union, and one begin with a vowel but no a vowel sound. University and union begin with the yoo sound while one begins with the w sound.
Well-known words which begin with a vowel but take a with them are:
European      uniform      union      unit
universal        usual          useful     eau-de-cologne

4. An: An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound:

an umbrella     an opportunity     an honest boy     an honorable person
The letter h in honest and honourable is not sounded. Common words in English which begin with an unsounded h are:

heir               heiress     honest     honorary
honourable    hour hourly

5. In abbreviations, if consonants begin with a vowel sound, they take an before them:

an M.P.     an S.P.

But if consonants begin with a consonant sound, they take a before them:

a Ph.D.     a B.Ed.

6. Note the use of a in the following phrases:

a pity                 a shame
a pleasure          a noise
a rage                a nuisance
a headache        a toothache
a bad cold in      a whisper
in a low voice in a loud voice
to be at a loss

7. The definite Article the: The, the definite article, is a weakended form of that. It is pronounced as (di:) when it preceded a vowel sound and as do before a consonant sound. In meaning also, it is weaker than that. Instead of pointing out, it defines, particularises or singles out:
I have read the book you are talking of. (not any book but a particular book that is being referred to) The artists who came to seem me today are quite accomplished. (not any artists but the ones who came to see me today)

8. In the examples given in § 7, the book and the artists are particularised by two adjective clauses. In certain cases, a noun's being particular may be clear from the context and it may not have any defining expression with it. The is also prefixed to such a noun:
Shut the door. (the door of the room in which we are sitting) He was brought before the Principal. (The Principal of the institution in which he was studying) The king pardoned him. (the king we are talking about at the moment)

9. If I am looking at the picture of a room, I can talk about the ceiling, the floor, because there is only one ceiling and one floor, but I cannot talk about the wall if there are more than one walls in the picture because I would not be talking about the only one. I can, however, talk about the left wall and the right wall because there is only one left wall and one right wall in the picture.

10. More about the: We use the definite article the

1. with superlatives and the words used in the superlative sense:
   the best student in the class
   the Chief Justice
   the PrimeMinister
2. when special emphasis almost equivalent to the use of the superlative is intended:
   He is the leader today. (the greatest leader)
   This is just the thing. (the right thing)
   This is the way to solve this problem. (the proper way).
3. even in comparative degrees when one of the two items is singled out in preference to the other:
   He is the moon, the world, (But not: He is the finer batsman than others. The correct form would
   be : He is a finer bats man than others.)
4. with things of which there is only one in our world, or things which are otherwise well known but do
   not begin with a capital letter:
   the sun, the moon, the world, the equator, the north, the east.
5. in place of possessive adjectives:
   I hit him on the head. (= his head) Disappointment stared him in the face.( = his face)
6. with common nouns when one noun is used to represent the whole class or species:
   The horse is a faithful animal.
   The lion is the king of animals.
7. with an adjective with a plural notion to indicate a class of persons:
   The rich should help the poor. (We can say: Rich men should help poor men But not: The rich men should help the poor men.×)
8. as an adverb in case of certain comparatives: The more we get, the more we want.
   The harder you work, the better it will be.
9. to suggest distribution: (= each)
   We can buy oranges by the dozen.
   Cloth is sold by the metre.

Exercise

Fill in the blanks with a, an or the where necessary:

1. —— more you read, —— more you know.
2. —— stone hit him on —— head.
3. —— fox is —— very clever animal.
4. Only —— rich can afford ——comforts of ——modern times.
5. I have —— elder brother and —— younger sister. —— sister is —— wiser of the two.
6. If you are looking for —— entertaining as well as educative magazine, this is —— magazine for you.
7. —— sun rises in — east and sets in —west.
8. India is a little to —— north of —— equator.
9. —— oranges are sold by —— dozen.

11. Articles with Proper Nouns

1. Proper nouns, as a rule, do not take articles with them:
Shakespeare was a great playwright. (Shakespeare)
Samudragupta was a great warrior. (Samudragupta)

2. But if a proper noun is used as a common noun, it may take with it some article:
He is a good playwright but not a Shakespeare. (not as great a playwright as Shakespeare)
Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India. (as great a playwright for India as Shakespeare is for England)

3. We need the definite article the with the names of:
Rivers the Ganga, the Yamuna

• Seas and oceans the Red Sea, the Atlantic Ocean
• Mountain ranges the Alps, the Himalayas
• Holy books the Bible, the Ramcharit Manas
• Trains, ships the Himgiri Express, the Ashoka (the name of a ship).
• Newspapers and the Pioneer, magazines the Hindustan Times, the Filmfare, the portstar
• Well-known the Gateway of India, buildings the Red Fort, the Qutub Minar
• Countries (if their name contains a common noun) the U.S.A., the U.K. (In United States of America, States is a common noun.)
• Peoples, parties the English, the French, the Whigs
• The whole families the Khans, the Kapurs

2. Prepositions

Prepositions of Time

A number of prepositions may be used to denote time: fromMonday; after my return; during the night; till tomorrow; before the bell rings; a quarter to ten.

In most cases, it is easy to decide which preposition to use. The following prepositions, however, need special attention.

1. At, on, in

(a) At usually denotes a definite point of time but can also be used for indefinite periods:
at 7 p.m.; at this moment; (Definite at midnight; point of time)
at the end of the class; at night; at dawn; (indefinite at Durga Puja; at Diwali. periods)

(b) On is used with days and dates:
on Monday; on 1st May;
on the annual day; on a May afternoon.

(c) In is used with parts of the day, and with months, years, seasons:
in the morning; in September;
in 2004; in winter.

(d) In is also used with the future tense to show the period in which an action will happen:
in a week; in four hours.

(5) In and within. In means at the end of; within means before the end of:
I shall be back in a week. (when a week is over)
I shall be back within a week. (before a week is over)

2. By

By refers to a point of future time and denotes the latest time at which an action will be over:
The competition will be over by 6 p.m.
(It should be over before it is 6 p.m., but the latest time at which it can be over is 6 p.m.)
They will have declared the result by tomorrow evening.

3. For

For is used with periods of time to show the duration of an action. It is mostly used with perfect continuous tenses though it may be found with other tenses as well:
This discussion has been going on for two hours.
I have worked in this office for two years.
For may sometimes be omitted also:
I have been busy the whole morning.(for the whole morning)

4. Since

Since marks the point of time at which an action began. It is used only if the action has continued till the time of speaking; hence it is found with perfect continuous tenses. Unlike for, it can never be ommitted:
She has been teaching in this college since 2001.
A cool breeze has been blowing since morning.

5. From

From denotes the starting point of an action and is used in all cases except when the action has continued till the moment of speaking. It is almost invariably used with to or till:
The examination will be held from 8 a.m. to 11 a.m.
He was the Chief Minister of the state from 1999 to 2002.

6. At, in

(a) At has the idea of an exact point and is, therefore, used with houses, villages, small towns. In has the idea of a larger area and is used while speaking of bigger towns, states, countries, etc.:
at Karol Bagh in New Delhi;
at Ambala; in England;
at the end; in the middle.

(b) At conveys the idea of a general neighbourhood; in conveys the idea of something contained:
We say at the table to take our lunch.
Please wait for me at the Regal PVR.
Turn left at the next crossing.
There are two Pepsi bottles in the refrigerator.
You will find the stapler in the drawer.

7. On, upon

On is used while speaking of things at rest; upon is used with things in motion:
The file is on the table.
The dog sprang upon the table.

8. Above, over

Both above and over mean higher than. Sometimes we can use either of them:
The flags waved over our heads.
The flags waved above our heads.
But over can also mean coverning, or vertically above:
My father put a blanket over me.
There is a fan exactly over the table.

9. Below, under

Both below and under mean lower than and sometimes we can use either of them. But under means
vertically below. It also has the idea of contact:
There was a beautiful lake below us in the valley.
His shoes were lying under the table.
She put the keys of the wardrobe under her pillow.

10. Into

Into denotes movement towards the interior of something:
He jumped into the well.
One stream flows into another.
Figuratively: We have entered into an agreement to export handicrafts to some European countries.

11. For

For is used to denote direction when the verb shows the beginning of a movement:
The children leaves for the school at 7 a.m.
We shall soon set off for Mumbai.

12. Against

Against shows pressure or contact:
He threw the goods against the wall.
Prepositions of direction from. Most common among these are: from, off, out of:

13. From

From is used with the point of departure:
He brought these books from the market.
He had already gone from home.

14. Out of

It is the opposite of into. It means from the interior of:
He took a few books out of the almirah.

3. Common Errors

Section I—COMMON ERRORS IN THE USE OF NOUNS

Number

1. Nouns having the Same Form in Singular as well as in Plural
(a) Nouns expressing number: two hundred people; three dozen eggs; four score oranges. But note: scores of organes; hundreds of people.
(b) Nouns in expressions like a ten-rupee note; a five-year old child; a five-kilometre walk.
(c) Names of some animals: sheep, deer, swine.

2. Nouns used as Singular
The following nouns are generally used in the singular: alphabet, bedding, clothing, furniture, information, luggage, machinery, offspring, poetry, scenery, physic etc.:

3. Nouns Plural in Form but used as Singular
(a) Branches of learning: Mathematics, Physics, Mechanics, Statistics
(b) Diseases: Mumps, measles
(c) Games and sports: Billiards, draughts, gymnastics.
(d) News, summons, innings, wages:

4. Nouns always used as Plural
(a) Articles of dress: shoes, socks, trousers, pyjamas, shorts.
But a pair of shoes is singular:
Leather shoes are very costly in Russia.
A pair of shoes is all I need.

(b) Names of instruments: scissors, tongs, bellows, Spectacles, shears:
These scissors are very sharp.
My spectacles have been lost.

(c) Other nouns like alms, annals, ashes, assets, intestines, thanks, proceeds, spirits, tidings, savings, belongings, contents, credentials, nuptials:
The proceeds of this show are being donated to the National Defence Fund.

5. Nouns Singular in Form but used as Plural
Cattle, gentry, peasantry, poultry, clergy:
The cattle are grazing in the field.
If the peasantry flourish, the country prospers.
The gentry were found uncooperative.

6. Nouns with Two Plural Forms which Differ in Meaning

7. A pronoun must have the same gender, number and person as the noun it represents:
The girl has deposited her books at the counter. She is now coming to the library.
Mohan's son has lost his watch. He needs a new one.

8. When a personal pronoun is used as the object of a verb or a preposition, it is placed in the objective case:

I accused him of theft.                         (objects of a Let me do it. verb)
How long did you wait for me?            (object of a preposition)
Besides him,
many others voted in my favour           (object of a preposition)

9. When a pronoun is used as the complement of the verb to be, it is placed in the nominative case:
It is I. In informal conversation, they often say it is me, but if the pronoun is followed by a clause, nominative case must be used: It is I who scored the goal.

10. The pronouns governed by than and as can be placed either in the nominative case or in the objective case depending upon the meaning to be conveyed:

I love you more than he.                      (than he loves you)
I love you more than him.                    (than I love him)
You helped me as much as she.           (as much as she helped me)
You helped me as much as her.            (as much as you helped her)

11. Comparison of Adjective

The comparative degree of an adjective is used to compare two things, the superlative to compare more than two things. If no comparison is implied, we use positive degree:
Mayur is a tall boy. (No comparison, hence the positive degree of the adjective tall)
Mayur is taller than Shubham. (Comparison between two persons, hence the comparative degree of the adjective tall)
Mayur is the tallest boy in the class. (Comparison among all the boys of the class, hence the superlative degree of the adjective tall)
Note: Comparative degree is usually followed by than; superlative degree takes with it the definite article the. See the examples given above.

12. Double comparatives and superlatives must not be used.

Incorrect.             He is more cleverer than his cousin.
Correct.               He is cleverer than his cousin.
Incorrect.             Mount Everest is the most highest peak in the world.
Correct.               Mount Everest is the highest peak in the world.

13. Other

Mercury is heavier than any other metal.
Mercury is the heaviest of all metals.
In the first sentence, mercury is to be excluded from the metals, with which it is being compared. In the
second sentence it is one of them. It would be incorrect to say:
Mercury is heavier than any metal.
Mercury is the heaviest of all other metals.

14. Comparatives ending in or, superior, inferior, senior, junior, prior, are followed by to and not by than. We do not use with them more also:
He is senior to me by three years.
My pen is superior to yours.

15. Very, much

(i) Very qualifies adjectives or adverbs in the positive degree, much qualifies them in the comparative degree:
She is a very intelligent girl.
Today she is looking much weaker than usual.
She runs very fast.
She runs much faster than Soumya.

(ii) Very is used with present participles when they are used as adjective; much is used to modify past participles when they have their full verbal function:
The scenery is very charming.
The foreign policy of the government was much criticised in Parliament.
However, if a past participle is used purly as an adjective, it is modified by very and not by much:
I felt very tired.
I am very satisfied to see your work.
Other such participle adjectives are: pleased, surprised, delighted, grieved, pained, annoyed, experienced, contented, concerned, disappointed, interested,worried, bored, shocked, astonished, excited,
etc.

(iii) Very is used with an adjective in the superlative degree for emphasis:
He is the very best student in the class.
Much is used with an adjective in the superlative degree to intensify the meaning: You are much the brightest (by the brightest) student in the class.

16. Too

(i) Too denotes a higher degree than is desirable, natural, proper or expected. It should never be used instead of very or much. It is incorrect to say: 'The water is too cold'. Instead, one should say: 'The water is very cold'.

(ii) Too preceded by only has a positive sense:
He is only too glad to meet his friends.
(He is extremely glad to meet his friends.)

(iii) Too much is generally used before a noun:
He take too much sugar in his tea.
You take too much care of your health.

(iv) Too means also:
Have you been to the party, too?
This, too, is very important.
In speech, we use too more often than also.

17. Enough

Enough means sufficient and is always used in the positive sense. It is placed after the adjective or adverb but before the noun:
He was tall enough to reach the shelf.
I ran fast enough to overtake her.
There isn't enough room to sit down.

18. Wrong use or Omission of Prepositions
Make a careful note of the following wrong use of prepositions:

A. Where a preposition should not have been used

B. Where a preposition should not have been omitted

C. Where a wrong preposition has been used

D. Make a careful study of the following sentences in which the use of the infinitive is erroneous and should be replaced by a preposition followed by a gerund or a noun:

19. That. That should not be used before interrogative adverbs or pronouns in indirect narration:

Incorrect.             He asked me that when he could come to see me.
Correct.               He asked me when he could come to see me.

20. Since. Since shows 'from which time'. It is preceded by present perfect tense (sometimes present indefinite tense) and followed by past indefinite tense:
Three months have passed since he last wrote to me.
It is about a month since I met her.

21. Unless, if. Unless means if not. It should not be confused with if:

Incorrect.         Unless he does not apologies, he should not be allowed to sit in the class.
Correct.           Unless he apologies, he should not be allowed to sit in the class.

22. Lest. Lest means 'in order that ..... not'. It always takes should with it:
Cover your head properly lest you should catch cold.
Note. The clause beginning with lest should not be negative.

Incorrect.         Let us catch a taxi lest we should not get late.
Correct.           Let us catch a taxi lest we should get late.

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS INCLUDING AMBIGUITIES AND INDIANISMS