Early Medieval India, 750-1200

Rajput Dynasties of Rajasthan and Central India

By contrast, in Rajasthan, a single dominant warrior group evolved, called Rajput (derived from Rajaputra), who rarely engaged in farming which was left exclusively for their peasant subjects. In the ninth century, separate clans of Rajput Chahamanas (Chauhans), Paramaras (Pawars), Guhilas (Sisodias), and Chaulukyas (Solankis) were branching off from sprawling Gurjara Pratihara clans. Rajput supremacy also stimulated the rise of warrior Jat peasant clans in Northen India in Rajasthan, the western Ganga basin, and Punjab where they built fortified villages and hilltop forts.

Regional Kingdoms

The Turks were altogether unsuccessful in taking Orissa. while Assam could never be subdued by the invaders. Rajputana was an unfaltering arena of resistance throughout the Sultanate period. South India remained free from South till almost the beginning of the fourteenth century. When north India was being devastated by the’ raids of Mahmud Ghazni, Rajaraja Chola was establishing a mighty empire that at his death embraced the whole of the south upto the Tungabhadra the Maldives, a part of Sri Lanka, with Andhradesa as a feudatory ally. The last king of that dynasty to preside over Kanauj was Rajyapala. He was killed by the Chandella king Vidyadhara for failing to resist Mahmud Ghazni’s invasion of the city and thus deviating from the path of his ancestors.

Gahadavalas

In the latter half of the eleventh century, the Gahadavalas came to power in Kanauj. Some scholars are of the view that the Gahadavalas were a branch of the Rashtrakutas or Rathors. The founder of the dynasty, Chandradeva, is described in his inscriptions as the protector of the holy sites of Kusika (Kanauj), Kashi. Uttara Koshala (Ayodhya) and Indrasthana (Delhi). Kahsi was the second capital of the Gahadavalas. Govindachandra was the next important ruler of this line. He expanded the kingdom at the expense of the declining Palas of Bengal.

One of the most important books on law, the Kritya-Kalpataru was written in Govindachandra’s reign. He appears to have been on intimate terms with the Cholas, as an incomplete inscription engraved in stone has been discovered in the Chola capital recording the genealogy of the Gahadavala Kings. The last king of this house, Jaichandra, lost his life combating Muhammad Ghori. But the Turks do not appear to have kept the conquered territory for long, as Jaichandra’s son. Harishchandra is known to have been in possession of the Kanauj, Jaunpur and Mirzapur districts in 1197. The accounts of Muslim historians support the view that Kanauj was not won till the reign of Iltutmish (1210-1236), who also had to re conquer Varanasi.

Chandellas

The Chandellas were included among the thirty-six Rajput clans and claimed descent from the sage Chandratreya. Starting out as feudatories of the Gurjara Pratiharas, they became an - independent power under Yasovarman. His son, Dhanga, further extended the kingdom at the cost of the Pratiharas and also attacked Pala territories in the east. Dhanga aided the Shahi ruler, Jaipal, against Subuktrgin. He lived for more than a hundred years and ended his life in Allahabad while meditating upon Shiva. His son, Ganda, helped Jaipal’s son Anandpal, against Mahmud Ghazni. Ganda’s son, Vidyadhara, was the greatest of the Chandella Kings. He killed the last Pratihara ruler of Kanauj for surrendering to Mahmud Ghazni without fight. Muslim chronicles describe Vidyadhara as the most powerful ruler of India.

In the reign of Paramardi (1165-1203), the Chandella kingdom suffered a defeat at the hands of the Chauhan ruler, Prithviraj III, who raided the capital city of Mahoba. More serious was the attack of Qutbuddin Aibak on Kalinjar. After some resistance, Paramardi agreed to pay tribute. His minister. Ajayadeva, diapproved of the agreement, killed Paramardi, and renewed the fight against Aibak. But he himself was forced to surrender after a valiant’ struggle, due to shortage of water in the fort. The Turks, however, do not appear to have succeeded in keeping Kalinjar for long. Sometime before 1205, Paramardi’s son inflicted a severe defeat on the Muslim forces and recovered Kalinjar. The Chandellas were great builders. They are best remembered for the magnificent temples they raised at their capital, Kharjuravahaka (Khajuraho), in Madhya Pradesh.

Paramaras

According to available evidence, the Paramaras were originally vassals of the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas and emerged as an independent power in the second half of the tenth century. Starting from Ujjain, they later shifted their capital to Dhar. The first notable Paramara ruler was Vakpati Munja, who ruled towards the end of the tenth century and is hailed as one of the greatest generals of his age

He was a generous patron of art and literature, and a number of poets like Dhananjaya, Halayudha, Dhanika and Padmagupta graced his court. He also excavated a number of tanks and built several splendid temples. Bhoja, who ascended the throne around the beginning of the eleventh century, was the most eminent ruler of the dynasty. He was a rare combination of a military and literary genius. Paramara power reached its zenith during his long reign of more than fifty years.

In 1008, he sent an army to assist Anandpal against Mahmud Ghazni. Subsequently, around 1019, he provided shelter to Anandpal’s son, Trilochanpal, when the latter was under pressure from Mahmud. Bhoja was a reputed scholar who authored almost two dozen works on subjects as varied as medicine. astronomy, religion and architecture. He established a Sanskrit college within the precincts of the Saraswati temple and invited men of letters like Dhanapala and Uvrata to his court. He founded the city of Bhojapur near Bhopal and built a number of temples in honour of Shiva.

Chauhans

The Chauhans were an old and distinguished ruling house who made their political debut as vassals of the Gurjara Pratiharas and ruled over parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan in the seventh and eighth centuries. There were several branches of the Chauhan family, the most well-known being the Chauhans of Sakambhari, after their capital (modern Sambhar) in the Ajmer district of Rajasthan. Prominent kings of this dynasty include Ajayaraja, who recaptured Nagor from the Yaminis and prevented a further Ghaznavid advance. In the early twelfth century, he founded the city of Ajayameru (Ajmer), better situated for defence purposes than Sambhar, the old capital. Some of his coins carry the name of his queen, Somaladevi.

His son, Arnoraja, also scored a decisive victory over the Yaminis, who had advanced upto Ajmer. He was married to the daughter of the Chalukya ruler, Jayasimha Siddharaja of Gujarat, and the great Prithviraj
III was his grandson. It was Arnoraja’s son, Vigraharaja IV Visaladeva, whose known dates range from 1153-1163, who transformed the Chauhan kingdom into an empire. Besides being an able warrior, Vigraharaja IV Visaladeva was a man of letters and a patron of literature. Fragments of his drama, the Harakeli, have been found engraved on a stone in Ajmer. The historical drama, Lalita-Vigraharaja, written by his court poet Somadeva, has been similarly discovered. Vigraharaja IV Visaladeva was a great builder and founded many townships. The mosque, Adhai din Ka jhompra at Ajmer, was originally a college constructed by him. Prithviraj III was the last ruler of this house. He has been immortalised by the poet Chandbardai in the epic Prirhviraja Raso, though another biographical work. Prithviraja- vijaya, is regarded as a more authentic account of his reign. Branches of the Chauhans also ruled at Ranthambhor, Nadol and Jalor. Ajmer and Jalor were captured by Alauddin Khilji in the early fourteenth century.

Kalachuris

The Kalachuris (also known as Katasuris, Haihayas and Chedis) whose legendary earl) history is mentioned in the Epics and the Puranas were an ancient ruling house. In historical times, there are references to Kalachuri kings from the midsixth century A.D. Their earliest seat of power was Mahismati on the Narmada. An early Kalachuri king, Kokalla, is credited with having defeated the Turushkas who seem to have been Turkish troops of the ruler of Sind. He was married to a Chandella princess. The famous poet Rajasekhara lived in the Kalachuri court. The Kalachuris again acquired power and prestige under Gangeyadeva, who ascended the throne in 1015 in the region around Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh. Besides incursions against Orissa, Anga and Banaras, there are also references to his attack on Kira (Kangra valley) which was then part of the Ghaznavid province of Punjab. He was succeeded by his son, Karna, the greatest ruler of this dynasty and one of the most renowned generals of his age.

His inscriptions attest to the fact that Banaras and Allahabad constituted parts of his kingdom and- that he was also in occupation of West Bengal for a while. In addition, he led successful expeditions against Kalinga and Conjeevaram. A branch of the Kalachuris established a kingdom in Bilaspur district of Madhya Pradesh in the early eleventh century.

Chalukyas/Solankis

The Chalukyas or Solankis ruled over Gujarat for almost three and a half centuries (950-1300). During the reign of Bhima I (1022-1064), Mahmud Ghazni invaded Gujarat and ravaged the temple of Somnath. Bhima was succeeded by his son, Karna, whose principal achievement was the annexation of Lata (South Gujarat). Jayasimha Siddharaja, who ascended the throne in 1092-93, consolidated and considerably expanded the kingdom of Gujarat. He subdued the Chauhans of Sakambhari but gave his daughter to its defeated ruler Arnoraja. Thereafter, Siddharaja turned against the Paramaras of Malwa. By 1137, he had conquered enough of that kingdom to assume the title of Avantinath (Lord of Malwa). Jayasimha Siddharaja was a devotee of Shiva and built the RudraMahakala temple at Siddhapura. He was a patron of the famous Jain scholar Hemachandra. He also set up institutions for the study of Jyotisha Nyava, and the Puranas. Siddharaja had no son, and was succeeded by Kumarapala, renowned as the last great royal proponent of Jainism. The invasion of Muhammad Ghori took place in the reign of his minor grandson. The regent queen herself led the defending army and inflicted a defeat on the Turkish forces near Mount Abu.