Subject: History

Question :1 Mark any fifteen of the following places on the map supplied to you and write short descriptive notes on the places plotted by you on the map

1. Ajanta

2. Bodh Gaya

3. Dholavira

4. Dwarka

5. Girnar

6. Hastinapur

7. Kanchipuram

8. Koshambi

9. Madurai

10. Malkhed

11. Mohanjodaro

12. Nalanda

13. Purushpur

14. Ropar

15. Sanchi

16. Sravanbelagola

17. Sravasti

18. Tanjore

19. Thaneshwar

20. Varanasi

1. Ajanta: The caves of Ajanta (listed on UNESCO’s world heritage sites) are situated on the northern fringe of the Maharashtra plateau in district of Aurangabad. They lie off one of the ancient arterial trade routes connecting Western India to North India through Mahbshmatb and Ujjabn. Extending over 550m, they are aligned in a horse-shoe form. The caves are a very fine combination of architectural and sculptural works and paintings, and were carved out for Buddhist monks to live a monastic life. These caves were excavated roughly, from about the second century BC to the seventh century AD. There are in all 30 caves (including the unfinished ones), out of which caves 9, 10, 19, 26 and 29 are chaitya grihas, while the rest of them are viharas.

2. Bodh Gaya: Located on the banks of Phalgu River in the state of Bihar, Bodh Gaya is seen as the most important of Buddhist pilgrimage centres. This is the place where Lord Sakyamuni (Gautama Buddha) entered into meditation after being moved by the sufferings of mankind. The giant Bodhi tree (a peepal) that we find there today is believed to have grown from the original Bodhi tree under which Prince Siddhartha meditated and finally attained nirvana. The Maha Bodhi temple in Bodh Gaya is an architectural amalgamation of many cultures. The temple bears the stamp of architecture of the Gupta dynasty and subsequent ages. On the walls of the temple,  one can see the image of Buddha carved in different aspects and in the sanctum sanctorum, a colossal Buddha is seen touching the ground, which has mythological significance in Buddhist lores. The famous Chinese travellers, Fa-Hsien and Hsuan Tsang visited Bodh Gaya.

3. Dholavira: Dholavira, known for its large Indus Valley Civilisation settlement, lies in the north-west corner of Khadir, a large island in the Rann of Kutchch in the state of Gujarat. It was discovered in 1967 and was excavated by R.S. Bisht. Dholavira was settled by the Indus Valley people around 5000 years ago. Dholavira is divided into three main parts: the citadel, the middle town, and the lower town. The most special feature of Dholavira is its watershed management system, with huge water reservoirs and check dams. The largest water reservoir measures 80.4m x 12m x 7.5m. The most interesting discovery at Dholavira is a large inscription comprising ten letters in the Indus Valley script, each letter engraved on a slice of crystalline material.

4. Dwarka: An ancient town with great historic importance, Dwaraka is a small town located on the north-western tip of the Kathiawar (Saurashtra) peninsula in Jamnagar district of Gujarat. Dwaraka, the name derived from the Sanskrit word Dvara meaning door, was the ‘Gateway of India’ in ancient times, an entrepot for ships engaged in overseas trade with Egypt, Arabia and Mesopotamia. The earliest reference to Dwaraka is found in a maritime geography of trade between India and the Roman empire, The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, dating to the period AD 80-115. The Periplus refers to Dwaraka as the Gulf of Baraco, while mentioning the location of Bharukachchha. The Mahabharata refers to Dwaraka; Shankaracharya in early medieval times founded a matha, a great Hindu religious centre, at Dwaraka.

5. Girnar: The Girnar Mountain, in the neighbourhood of Junagarh in Saurashtra in the state of Gujarat, is also referred to as Ujayantagiri or Raivatgiri in scriptures. This is considered to be Neminath Mountain or the fifth peak of the Shatrunjaya mountain range. The place is sacred to Jains as they consider it to be the birthplace of their 22nd tirthankara, Neminath. The Mauryan governor, Pushyagupta, during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, built a tank called Sudershana Lake or Sudarshana tadga here. This lake was renovated by Rudradaman, the Saka ruler, as well as by the ministers of Skanda Gupta, Chakrapalita and his son Parndatt, which shows that the lake remained important even during the Gupta period and after. At Girnar, we find the famous inscription of the Western Kshatrap Saka ruler, Rudradaman, which is considered to be the first Sanskrit inscription as well as the longest chaste Sanskrit inscription.

6. Hastinapur: Hastinapur, located in present day Meerut district of western Uttar Pradesh, finds mention in the great epic Mahabharata as well as in the Puranas. According to the Mahabhorata, Hastinapur was the capital of the Kuru clan and, according to the Puranas, King Nichakshu was forced to shift his capital to Kaushambi due to the flooding of Hastinapur. The evidence of the flood has been obtained in archaeological excavations. As per the Jain legends, three of their 24 tirthankaras were related with this place. Archaeologically, Hastinapur has been divided into five parts. It is a famous PGW site; though OCP culture has also been found (wheat and rice as well as objects of copper and iron belonging to the period have been found). It also gives evidence of NBPW culture-punchmarked coins, iron implements and rings and precious metals suggesting the prosperity of the region. The period from 200 BC-AD 300 was marked by use of red ware and has revealed the use of burnt bricks and regular house planning.

7. Kanchipuram: Kanchipuram, about 70 km from Chennai, was the historical capital of the Pallavas from the sixth century AD to the eighth century AD. Later, it came under the influence of the Cholas, the  Vijayanagara rulers, the Muslims, and the British. Kanchipuram has been a centre of Tamil learning and culture. It has also been a centre of religious teachings for centuries. Kanchipuram is also known the world over for its silk sarees. It is also famous for its hand woven silk and cotton fabrics, woven in contrasting colours. Kanchipuram has magnificent temples of unique architectural beauty, bearing eloquent testimony to its glorious Dravidian heritage. It was once known as the city of a thousand temples. Today it has around 126 temples. Some of the very famous temples of Kanchipuram include the Kamakshi Amman temple and Vaikuntha Perumal temple. Kanchipuram is among the seven most sacred pilgrim centres for the Hindus. The Adi Shankara is believed to have established his Episcopal seat here. Before the advent of Hinduism, this city had been a centre of Buddhism. Thus it can
be rightly regarded as the ‘religious capital of South India’.

8. Koshambi: Situated at a distance of 48 kms from Allahabad, on the bank of the Yamuna, Koshambi was an important city of ancient India. Hien-Tsang visited the place in seventh century A.D. More than ten Bodh Viharas have been identified here. A town of ancient origins Kosambi was the birthplace of the sixth Tirthankara. A stone pillar inscription discovered near Kosam, gives Kosambi or Kausambi its name. Kosambi was also an important halting place of persons travelling along the great trade-route connecting Saketa and Sravasti on the north, and with Paithana on the banks of the River Godavari on the South. Hsuan-Tsang visited Kosambi in  the 7th century AD.

9. Madurai: Madurai lies on the banks of River Vaigai in Tamil Nadu. As narrated in legends, Madurai was originally a forest known as Kadambavanam. An early Tamil text, Maduraikkanji of Marudan contains a full-length description of Madurai and its people under the rule of King Nedunjeliyan. According to the Silappadikarare, Madurai was destroyed because of the curse of Kannagi. Kautilya refers to Madurai as a place famous for cotton fabrics. Megasthenes visited Madurai in the third century BC. Later, many people from Greece and Rome visited Madurai and established trade links with the Pandya kings. Madurai flourished till the 10th century AD when it was captured by the Cholas, the arch rivals of the Pandyas. The Cholas ruled Madurai till the beginning of the 13th century when it was again taken over by the Pandyas. In 1371, Madurai became a part of the Vijayanagara kingdom, and later came under the control of the Nayakas. Madurai is surrounded by several mountains, and it is famous for jasmine flowers which are transported to other cities of India as well as exported. Madurai with a 2500-year old history is the oldest city in Tamil Nadu, both historically and mythologically.

10. Malkhed: This city was founded by  Rastrakuta ruler Amoghvarsha I. Al-Masudi has mentioned the glory and splendour of this city.

11. Mohanjodaro: Mohenjodaro, meaning Mound of Dead, is situated on the right bank of River  Indus in Larkana District, now in Pakistan. It was discovered by R.D. Banerjee in 1922. The city, a major example of the Indus Valley Civilisation, was divided into two parts-the western citadel and the lower town. The citadel has large structures like the Great Bath (11.88 m x 7.01 m x 2.43 m) a granary, a collegiate building, and the assembly hall. Mohenjo-daro could have been the twin capital of the Indus Valley Civilisation alongwith Harappa. Some of the special finds at the site are a statue of a dancing girl made of bronze, evidence of cotton cloth, and the figure of a bearded man in steatite. The largest number of seals of Harappan civilisation are from Mohenjo-daro. Apart from that, three cylindrical seals of Mesopotamia have also been found at Mohenjo-daro.

12. Nalanda: Nalanda, situated close to Patna in Bihar, was originally the site of a monastery built during Buddha’s lifetime. It became a famous Buddhist Mahavihara or university from the fifth century to the first decade of the thirteenth century with over 10,000 students from several places-China, Japan, Tibet, Indonesia and 1,500 teachers. It has been described as the ‘Oxford University of Mahayana Buddhism’. Hsuan-Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, spent three years at Nalanda in the 7th century. Another Chinese pilgrim I-tsing, spent 10 years at the university. Bhaktiyar Khilji destroyed it in AD 1197. In 1951, the International Centre for Buddhist Studies was set up here. Its famous libraries are Ratna Sagar, Ratna Ranjak, and Ratan Odadhi.

13. Purushpur: It was the capital of Kushanas. Now it is known as Peshawar. Kamshka, the greatest Kushana ruler made here a massive stupa and many other gigantic structures.

14. Ropar: Ropar or Rupanagar is a district headquarters in Punjab about 40 km from Chandigarh on the left bank of the River Sutlej. It was the first Harappan site excavated in independent India. The excavations from here reveal a sequence of the main cultural periods: Harappan (200 BC-1400 BC), PGW (AD 700-AD 1200), and Medieval (AD 1200-AD 1700). We obtain evidence of re-occupation of the site during the PGW period after a long break. The distinctive features of this period are fine and well-burnt bricks. Copper was the main metal used in this period in addition to some broken pieces of iron which suggest iron smithing. Other antiquities found include precious stone beads and terracotta toy carts. The third period marked the second urbanisation and witnessed the emergence of Mahajanapadas. Silver punch-marked coins, ring soaked wells, burnt bricks and other antiquities, ring-polished stone, items made of ivory and bone, such as, comb and hair pins have been found. A gold coin of Chandra Gupta I has also been found. A hoard of 660 copper coins from 200 BC-AD 600 was found in an earthern pot. Excavation has revealed the prosperity of the people between the eighth and the 10th century AD.

15. Sanchi: Sanchi is situated about nine km south-west of Vidisa in Madhya Pradesh. Crowning the hill top of Sanchi, nearly 91 metres in height, is the group of Buddhist monuments which draws attention even from a distance. It is unique in having the most perfect and wellpreserved stupas, and Buddhist art and architecture pertaining to a period of about thirteen hundred years, from the third century BC to the twelfth century AD, almost covering the whole range of Buddhism. The foundation of the great religious establishment of Sanchi, destined to have a glorious career as an important centre of Buddhism for many centuries to come, was probably  laid by Ashoka (circa 273-236 BC), when he built a stupa and erected a monolithic pillar here. The dedicatory inscriptions at Sanchi unmistakably show that the prosperity of the Buddhist establishment here was, to a great extent, due to the piety of the rich merchants of Vidisa, and its strategic situation on two important trade routes.

16. Sravanbelagola: Shravana Belagola, 51 km south-east of Hassan in Karnataka, is one of the most important Jain pilgrim centres. According to Jain legends, Chandragupta Maurya, along with Jain guru, Bhadrabahu, retired to this place during the last year of his reign, and died practising salaphena (starvation) as per Jain custom. Shravana Belagola is famous for an 18-m high statue of Gomateshwara (Lord Bahubali, son of the first tirthankara Rishabdev) built in 983 AD by Chamundaraya. The statue stands atop one of the hills called Indragiri and is considered as the world’s tallest monolithic structure. Thousands of devotees congregate
here to perform the Mahamastakabhisheka- a spectacular ceremony held once in 12 years, when the over 1000-year-old statue is anointed with milk, curd, ghee, saffron, and gold coins. Chamunda Rai, the minister and general of the Ganga king, Rajamalla IV, also built a basadi (Jain temple) at Chandragiri hills. The pyramidal superstructure and the plastered walls show the monument’s southern character.

17. Sravasti: Buddha gave here his sermons many times. It was the capital of Kosal. It was named after Sravasta who was a great sage.

18. Tanjore: Thanjavur (or Tanjore) is situated in Tamil Nadu. It was the capital of the great Chola Empire, and later of the Thanjavur Nayakas and the Marathas. Thanjavur is renowned for the Brihadeshwara Temple built by Rajaraja Chola (AD 985-1012). With the tallest uimana in any temple in India (62m and 13 storeys high, topped by a dome), it is a magnificent temple. The conception and scale, the perfect symmetry
of the tower are noteworthy. The temple is a World Heritage monument. An enormous Nandi (second largest in India), carved out of a single block of granite, guards the entrance of the sanctuary. Built with many large granite blocks, the temple has superb inscriptions and sculptures of Shiva, Vishnu, and Durga on three sides of the massive plinth. The Saraswati Mahal Palace was started by the Nayakas of Madurai around AD 1500, but was completed by the Maratha ruler of Thanjavur. The palace library instituted by Maharaj Sarfoji has a collection of 30,000 palm leaf manuscripts and rare European books. 19. Thaneshwar: Thanesar is located near Kurukshetra in Haryana. In around the sixth century AD, it was the seat of power of the Pushyabhutis to which King Harshavardhana belonged. Harsha was born here. Thanesar is a sacred town for Hindus because Shiva was first worshipped here in the form of the linga. The Chinese pilgrim, Hsuan-Tsang has visited Thanesar, and has described it as a prosperous city. The tomb of Sheikh Chilhi Jalal, Chini Masjid, and Pathar Masjid are some important monuments of this place, which indicate that the place developed as a centre of Sufism. 20. Varanasi: It was the capital of Kasi Mahajanpad which was later on merged into Magadh by Magadhan ruler Bimbisar. Varanasi was famous for silk cloth called Kauseyak and ivory work.

Subject: History

Question :2 Analyse the elements of urban civilisation in the Harappan Culture. What factors were responsible for its decline?

Answer: Harappan civilisation was a bronze age culture which has been known to the world for its urbanism. Very special for its planned cities, drainage system and use of klin bricks for making massive structures. This was the largest civilisation in geographical extent during its own period. Till now thousands of sites have been discovered. Majority of sites are situated in India. According to recent discoveries, it has been found that the largest concentration of the Harappan settlement was in the valley of river Saraswati and its tributory Drisadvati. Another significant aspect of this culture was its well developed cottage industry and craftmanship which
had made it one of the richest civilisations of the ancient world. A number of cities excavated from coastal region have great significance in terms of  maritime trade. Lothal, situated in modem Gujarat was a port city where an artificial dockyard was made. Dholavira, Balakot, Alhadino, Sutkakoh and Sutkagendor were other important port cities which had a very important role in contemporary trade. From Lothal, Persian gulf type seals were also found. A number of Indian beads and seals have been discovered from the Mesopotamian cities which ace evidences of reciprocal trade. Many of the Indus cities have provided us a great number of seals. These seals were insignia of ownership. These seals are also evidence of well developed trade economy. Seals are also symbolic expression of their religious belief. These are the best examples of Harappan craftmanship. Chanhudaro,
situated in Sindh, was a city famous for bead-making. Carnelian, lapis-lasuli, etc. were used for making beads which were important items for export. From cities like Balathal, Kalibangan, Mohanjodaro also we have got
evidence of cottage industries. As far as technological development during Indus period is concerned, the use of Flemish bond and English bond method was a great achievement of  this period. Lost-wax-technique was used for making bronze implements and statues. Masonic art was also well developed. Image of the priest from Mohanjodaro and nude figure of dancing from Harappa have been found. Technical homogenity and conceptual uniformity in production was a very important aspect of Harappan made of production. Homogenity in production reveals the very fact that during this period there has evolved a centralized system of decision making also. It seems that around 2500 B.C. Harappan civilization reached its apex. But after 2000 B.C. use of seals, script, standerzied weights and measures, klin bricks were abondoned. In cities small and shoddy dwellings were made even on roads and the concept of planned city had become a subject of bygone era. These were some very serious signs of deterioration. Cities like Mohanjodaro and Harappa also saw a gradual decline in urban planning and construction of houses. The search for the causes of the decline of the Harappan civilization has moved in two directions (i) that some natural calamity led to the collapse and that there was barbarian invasion. Wheeler believed that the Indus civilization was destroyed by Aryan invaders. However, it has been pointed out that Mohanjodaro was abandoned by about 1800 B.C., While Aryans invaded India in 1500 B.C. Writers like Faisserus have tried to explain the decay of the Harappan civilization in terms of ecological problems. Perhaps over grazing and over exploitation of forest resources caused the virtual decline. But the enduring fertility of soil of this area disproves this hypothesis. Tectonic eruption has been suggested as another reason responsible for the  decay. Regular flood changes in the course of rivers and over ciltation by rivers in the Arahean sea are some of the other views related with the decline. Latest study of Post-Harappan settlement at  Kalibangan, Kunal, Kumtari, Rakigarhi, Dholavira. Desalpur and Rangpur made it very clear that great
traditions vanished but little traditions continued. So there was not a virtual decline but a transformation in economy which had become once again a rural one.

Question : 3 Examine the nature of the Mauryan State.Bring out the features of their administrative system.

Answer: Mauryan paramountacy which was established by Chandragupta was based on the ideal of enlightened and benevolent despotism. This idea prevails in the entire text that we know as Arthasastra and which no doubt is the first compedium on India’s statecraft. Ashoka who was the greatest despot of this dynasty has very explicitly depicted on Dhauli inscription that all of his subjects are his sons and daughters. His ideal was purely philanthropic and truly altruistic are based on the cardinal principals of welfare of the masses. In this regardd also Mauryan empire can be termed as a welfare state or an ideal monarchy wich aimed amity and harmony in the society. Ashokan inscription very frequently mentions about the Dhamma mission which was not evangentical in spirit rather humanitarian in values and also about the  Rajukas and Dhamma Mahamattyas who were appointed from promoting Dhamma and cultivating awareness about its greatest gospel. Kautilya also describes ‘Prajanam Hite Rajyam’ that means the glory of the monarch lies in the upliftment of the people.
Kautilya also mentions the Saptang theory of state that is still considered as a very realistic idea about it. Specialty Bal(army), Swami (the ruler), Kshetra (territory), Kosh (treasury) make it clear that the perception which Kautilya had in his mind was that of a sovereign state. As far as his discription is concerned, it is very clear that Mauryan administration was a kind of centralized bureaucracy. All the important ministers and officials were appointed by the ruler and they were directly responsible to him. At the centre of the administration was the king who had the power to enact laws. There was council of ministern to assist him in administrative work that was Mantriparishad. Ashokan inscriptions all mention about the Parishad. Arthasastra has mentioned three quality of minister such as birth, integrity and intelligence. Two of the key offices in administration were that of the Treasurer and Chief Collector who were known as Samidhata and Samahrta. Arthasastra also mentions about 20 Tirthas or departments like Pavata (weights and measure). Sita (crown land), Akar (mines and minerals) etc. All these departments were headed by Adhyakshas, called suprentendent like Pautvadhyaksha. Manadhyaksha. Sutradhyaksha, Suvernadhyksha etc. Apart from the metropolitan areas which was directly governed, the empire was devided into four provinces, each under a prince or a member of the royal family. Under Ashoka there were four such states : nothern province with capital at Taxila, western province with capital of Ujain, eastern province with centre at Tosali and southern province referred to as Suvarnagiri. Head of these provinces were known as Kumaramatya or Aryaputra. They were assisted by Mahamattya who were directly responsible to the Magadhan ruler. That was an another important aspect of the centralized bureaucracy of the Mauryan time. Ashoka appointed Dhmnma Mahamattya who have been very frequently mentioned in his
inscriptions. Provinces were Sub divided into districts and further into villages. Yuktas were heads of the district administration. Rajukas, especially mentioned in IV pillar inscription were also district officers and local administration was in the hands of Sthanika and Gope. We all also hear about administrative units about Kharvatik and Dronamukha. Megasthenese has also mentioned the municipal administration of Pataliputra. However. Kautilya has used the word Nagarak for the suprentendent of the city. Arhasastra has given a long list of taxes like Bhag (land tax). Sita (production from the crown land), Vivit (tax imposed on pasture land, Akar (tax on mines), Akramya and Niskrama (custom duty) etc. The entire Mauryan tax-structure has been called Ayasariram. The espoinage-system had also evolved in Mauryan period. Sanstha and Sanchara were spies who were appointed by the state. Kantak Sodhan and Dharmsthiya were respectively the criminal and civil court of that period which were heaved by Pradesta and Vyavharika. The state also maintained a large standing and centralized army which has been mentioned by foreign authors like Justin and Plutarch. All the important high officials were directly paid  by the state. This shows that upper level ofadministration was highly centralized and at lower level picture was very different and control was far more decentralized.

Question :4 Examine the proficiency of the ancient Indians in various crafts, science and mathematics.

Answer: Ancient India has given very substantial contribution to the world in the field of art, crafts, mathematic and sciences. Schan valley provides us chopper-chopping tools, hand-axes and even microliths which throw light on the tool-making technology which evolved in Indian sub-continent during paleolithic and mesolithic periods. Bhimbetaka, situated near Bhopal is an interesting site in context to mesolithic art. Here, on the rock holders, specially in caves and caverns ritual and hunting scenes as well as group dances of the man of stone age have been depicted. From Mehargarh and Kalibangan we get evidence of well developed agrarian economy and sedenry life. Mehargarh has provided seeds of grains and at Kalibangan furrow marks in an arable piece of land have been noticed which belong to Pre-Indus period. During Harappan civilization Indian subcontinent
witnessed vital changes in the economic life and it was a period of great technical advancement made in different feilds. Ceramic bichrome as well as polychrome were made during the period. Masonic art especially bead- aking became an important craft. Klin-bricks of same measurement and proportion were made under a centralized system of production. Homogenity in technique and uniformity in plan of the cities reveals the fact that Harappan architects had ample knowledge of geometry and even mathematics. English-bond and Flemish-bond methods have been used by the Harappan architects as the technique of bonding the bricks and erecting majestic houses. Lost-wax technique was also known to the Harappans. The statue of the dancing girl is a splendid testimony of this technique. Vedic Sulva Sutra which elucidates about the construction of the Vedic alter gives immense information about different geometrical forms. Though no any text on Vedang Jyotisha has been yet discovered, but tradition says that astronomy and astrology was an integral part of Vedic sacrifices. During 6' century B.C. coinage system evolved in India. We have a good number of punch-marked coins belonging to this period. Maurya period is no doubt a landmark in the history of India’s science and technology. Magasthenese describes the agrolithic nature of the Mauryan palace in Pataliputra which excelled in beauty and grandeur than the western Asiatic cities of Susa and Ekbatna. Ashoka was a great patron of art and architecture. It was during his period that monolithic colossal pillars were made and installed at various places. These pillars have been known to the world for their lustrous gloss. This gloss in generally known as Mauryan polish which was created by constant rubbing on the surface till desired gloss was attained. Barabar cave, especially Loma and Sudama caves are significant examples of the masonic technology of this period. These caves marked the beginning of rock-cut architecture in India. A number of art schools flourished during Sunga, Satvahan and Kushana period. Mathura, Gandhar, Sanchi. Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Amarawati and Nagarjuni-Konda are world famous for sculptural art and magnificent stupa. Rock-cut caves having exquisitely carved out facade and gigantic pillars surmounted by animal capitals are wonderful architectural creations of the world. Rock-cut caves of Bhoja, Kondane, Karle, Nasik and Ajanla are the splendid specimen of the stupendous effort that Indian artisans did in this era.  During Kushana period important texts like Charak Samhita and Sushrut Sumhita were written on Ayurveda. Gupta period has been regarded as the glorious and golden age in Indian History. In this period a good number of books were written on science, technology and mathematics of that period. Aryabhatta, wrote Aryabhathiyan and Suryasidhantika respectively on mathematics and Indian Astrology. Aryahhatta has given details about solar eclipse, rotation of earth and changes of seasons. We also know from his hooks that use of zero, decimal system and alzebra was known to Indians during ancient period. Iron pillar now installed at Mehrauli is a great example of metallurgical art and technology of this period. Sultanganj Buddha image of bronze is another great example of metallurgical art. Nagar style of temples having curvilinear spire emerged during this period. Deogarh temple of Jhansi is a great testimony of the masonic art of that age. During Post Gupta period, a number of great works were done on different faculties of learning. Vagbhatt wrote Astanghriadya, a text on Ayurveda that describes the eight important organs of human body. Books on veterinary science like Hastichikitsa of Pal-Kappya and Asvachikitsa by Salihann were written. Bhaskracharya wrote a compendium on mathematics named Leelavati. Brahmgupta wrote Bramsphuta Sidhanta which covers astrology, astronomy and also physics. Sidh Nagarjun was another great scholar of this period. His greatest contribution to the field of ancient chemistry is Ras Ramakar. During this period various texts related with canons of sacred architecture were also compiled. Aparajitprichcha, Samaranganstradhar, Mayamatta, Ishanvisviagumdeopadhati etc. are some of the best known hooks on religious edifices of the country. Vishnudharm otharapuran, which is a part of Vishnupuran, elucidates about the technique of wall painting and iconometry. Rock-cut caves of Elphanta, Ellora and Ajanta and the lofty temples of Pallava and Chola period like Kailashnath temple of Kanchipuram and Vrihdeshwara temple of Tanjor are the finest examples of Indian architecture as well as art which are based on scientific principles and paradigam of balance, proportion and iconometry.

Subject: History

Question :5. Write short essays in not more than 200 words each on any three of the following topics

(a) Origin of the Bhakti Movement

Ans: Bhaktism emerged as a pan-Indian movement during medieval period. Many scholars had a view that it was a intellectual reaction against Sufism. Many others called it as a religious movement evolved due to the influence of Islamic mysticism introduced in India by Sufis. But these views arc not commendable as Bhaktism has it roots in South India which had not received impact of Islam before 14th or 15th century while the Bhakti  cult of Alvar and Naynar were already very popular in this area. It is also believed that Bhaktism was a reaction against non-dualastic monism of Sankaracharya and his pedantic intellectualism called Jyan marg.

Origin of Bhaktism has been traced in Bhagvat Geeta also and there is no doubt about it that the idea of Prapatimarg (complete surrenderence to God) has been elucidated in this holy text. Nalariyam and Tiruvachakam written in Tamil language also mentions abut theism as the best way to get salvation.

Medieval Bhaktism was expounded by Ramanujacharya who propounded the philosophy known as Visisthadvattvad. Later on Nimbark and Madhvacharya also propagated Bhaktism. Vallabhacharya promulgated the Pustimarg and Ramanand introduced it into northern India where two shcools of Bhakti called Nirgum (formless God) and Sagun (personified God) became very popular. Kabir was the greatest exponent of Nirgan and Tulsi and Surdas were the best known poets of Sagun school of Bhakti. Chaitanya made Bhakti cult popular in Bengal while Dadu made it a religion of the common people in Rajasthan.

(b) Babarnama as a source of history

Answer: Babarnama is the autobiography of Babar. It was originally written in Turkish language. Babar himself was a great poet of Turkish language. Basically, his Babarnama was a diary that comprised depiction of his ideas, experiences and feelings. This was earlier known as Tuzuk—i-Babari. Babar has mentioned little about his fore-fathers, the great Timurids and their mighty deed and his native place Fargana. Specially, his strong nostalgia for the panormic beauty of Fargana has been revealed in his diary. Barbar’s difficulties after his accession have also be mentioned in it. When he came to India it was an alien land for him and he was not much charmed by the atmosphere. fauna and flora of the country. He did not find any good orchard even not artificial fountains. The only thing he has really appreciated that is the palace of Raja Man Singh Tomar. Perhaps Babar witnessed poverty in India. He criticises Indians for not being propertly dressed. He is also a critic of the physical features of the Indians. His views about the physical built of the Indians is satrical. Babarnama also mentions about his mental tension during the early invesions as well as his feelings before Khanva.

As far as the historical significance of the text is concerned, being an autobiography it doesn’t have much significance except Babar’s feeling about Fargana and India. Despite this, the text reveals few imporant things about the likings of the Mughals, their spirited triumphalist desire.

(c) Mansabdari System

Answer: Mansabdari order was an endeavour to streamline the military administration. It was basically adopted with the purpose to great a large centralised and standing army and regularize the system of recruitment.
Mansabdari system was basically the system of forming a hierarchy of military officers with different number of contingent. It was a very important feature of the Mongol army. In India itself its some of the features were already present in the military systems of Alauddin Khalji and precursor of Jalaluddin, Md. Akbar, Sher-Shah. In this systems mansabdars were selected on the basis of their capability and experience. The literal meaning of
mansab is rank. Two words in context to mansab : these arc Jar and Sawar. Jai means the actual rank and Sawer means the total number of cavalery men under the control of a mansabdar. Dagh and Chchra system were important part of mansabdari system. A register mentioning all the important mlormation about a cavalery man was maintained. This register was called Tajkira. Dagh system was basically adopted to maintain the quality and actual number of horses under a nansabdar. Dagh means branding of the horses. Periodical inspection was another important feature of the mansabdari system.

During Jahangir Du-Aspa and Sih-Aspa system was introduced into this order that was done to facilitate two and even three horses to a cavalery man during war time. Aurangjzeh started taking KhurakaniPhil from the mansabdar that was done to check forgcry being done in the name of fodder being given to elephants.

No doubt mansabdari system introduced during Akbar’s period played an important role in developing stringent control on military as well as revenue administration but later on due to hereditary claims made on the different ranks this system lost its real significance.

(d) Consequences of the Third Battle of Panipat

Answer: The Battle 1761 - a year of great turmoil in medieval India. Death of Baji Rao Peshwa and accession of Madhav Rao as Peshwa with Raghunath Rao as guardian, fall of Pondicherry, Shah Alam II became Mughal Emperor, Shuja-ud-Daulah Nawab of Awadh becomes ‘Wazir’, Rise of Haider Ali as a ruler of Mysore and also Third Battle of Panipat. It was the year that decided who is going to rule India in future. Yes 245 years ago on 14 January 1761 a decisive blow was struck to the Marathas, which since then faced a fading glory. It was Third battle of Panipat that resulted in this situation.

Peshwa Bajirao1 (1720-1740) enunciated the Maratha policy of northward expansion. He expressed that by directing our efforts to Hindustan, the Maratha flag shall fly from Krishna to Attock and from Attock to Cuttuck. It was the result of pursuance of this policy that the Marathas started swallowing the Mughal territories, which was a weak entity as compared to its past strength. Involvement to the Marathas in the Mughal administration was also increased which was the main cause of the battle. The Marathas helped Imad-ul-Mulk to become the Wazir, who remained as a mere puppet at the hands of the Marathas. As per the agreement with Wazir Imad, the Marathas reached Punjab for the protection of northwest frontier. This alarmed the indomitable Afghan warrior-king Ahmad Shah Abdali. (Abdali invaded the Punjab six times between 1748 and 1752, and he seized and sacked Delhi.) He soon marched into India to protect his territory as the Marathas had ousted his agent from Punjab. Thus the base for a grand battle was set.

The Marathas because of their reckless expansion policy were now left friendless. As against this Ahmad Shah Abdali was able to garner the support of the Muslim chiefs. The only Maratha ally at this juncture was Suraj Mal Jat of Bharatpur. He advised the Marathas to fight the battle from his capital city instead of from the plains. This was suggested in acknowledgement of the superiority of the Afghan forces. But the Marathas refuted the suggestion of Suraj Mal Jat (and perhaps paid a heavy price of it…) who removed his support from the Maratha camp for this cause.

Peshwa Balaji Bajirao also known as Nanasaheb grasped the state of affairs and dispatched a powerful army to meet the challenge. Commander-in-Chief of the Maratha army was Sadashiv Rao Bhau, cousin of Peshwa. The nominal control of the army was given in the hands of Vishwas Rao, minor son of Peshwa. An able general Ibrahim Khan Gardizi who was trained by the French when he was under Nizam headed the artillery department.

After a long wait the starving yet gallant Maratha camp opened the offensive. The day was Sankranti – a sacred day for Maharashtrians – but the result was tragedy. The Maratha army was completely routed. The superiority of the Afghan forces, constant bickering among Maratha commanders and exhaustion of food and fodder had sealed the fate of nearly one lakh Maratha soldiers of whom many perished on that single day. One more important reason for loss of Marathas was it’s accompanying of many priests and women from Pune who had expressed their desire to visit Kashi. According to some sources this cavalcade was comprised of more
than 50,000 people. Peshwa Nanasaheb under the pressure from the ecclesiastical class granted the permission. This led to unwanted bifurcation of manpower and money, which was provided to Sadashiv Rao Bhau. This grant of Peshwa Nanasaheb also proved heavy for the Marathas on the battlefield.

Suraj Mal Jat whose offer that Marathas had refuted earlier assisted the fleeing soldiers in medical aid and food. All the Maratha commanders along with Vishwas Rao , Sadashiv Rao Bhau , Jankoji Sindhia, Tukoji Sindhia, Ibrahim Khan Gardizi perished on the battle field. Even the artillery of Ibrahim Khan Gardizi, which was blazing the enemy camp, could not save  the day for the Marathas. The only Maratha generalwho came back after the battle was Mahadji Sindhia. Looking at the expediency of the situation Peshwa Nanasaheb also marched towards the battlefield at Panipat. But while on the march towards the battlefield the news of Maratha defeat and death of Vishwas Rao and Sadashiv Rao Bhau reached the Peshwa. Hearing this news the Peshwa broke down and subsequently died in Pune in June 1761.

No other battle in the history of India was so short with consequences so disastrous and far reaching as the Third battle of Panipat. According to Sir J.N.Sarkar “It was a nationwide disaster. There was not a single home in Maharashtra that had not to mourn a loss of a member, and several houses lost their head. An entire generation of leaders was cut off at one stroke.”

Consequences

IT was a full-blown disaster for the Marathas who were set to be the only power in India to take on the Imperial mantle and build an Indian empire. Their political prestige was also shattered as a consequence. Certainly the battle was also a severe blow to the Afghans who inspite of winning the battle did not benefit from the victory. The losses suffered by the Marathas and the Afghans paved in an easy way for the British ascendancy in India.

The war of Panipat is taken as a huge defeat of Marathas by the historians. Its very true that we lost the battle, but we had had a far reaching effect on the minds of Abdali. After the battle Abdali was frightened to such an extent that even after winnning the war, he did not dare to move forward towards Delhi.Before this invasion Abdali had plundered the land of India many times.But experiencing the valour,courage and bravery of the Marathas he never returned back to India.

Another interesting thing is that the Marathas fought for the nation and not for their personal benefits. But unfortunately no one helped them. Nor the Hindu kings, nor the Sikhs, nor the Muslim kings helped them. The Marathas travelled in thousands for the cause of the nation about 1200-1400km right from Pune when they came to know about Abdali’s invasion. Travelling today from Pune to Delhi is not that hard. But imagine that time, when there were no modes of transport and the big-big rivers came on the way. Passing through these rivers would have been a hard task.

The Marathas didn’t have an army as such; it was the farmers who also acted as army during war situation. It was phenomenon like the Marathas used  to do farming during the rainy seasons and after Vijaydashmi (Dasshera) they used to turn into soldiers for military expeditions. Another interesting fact that we should take into consideration was that the main faces of the war Sadhashivrao Bhau was just 29 years and Vishwasrao,son of Nanasaheb Peshwa was 17 years old when the Battle was fought. Ahmed Shah Abdali was 32 years of age, so we would see that this was the war of young people

Question : 6. Discuss Balban’s concept of kingship. How was it modified by Alauddin Khalji?

Answer: The accession of Balban on the throne of Delhi Sultanate marked the beginning of a new era of strong, centralized government in which policy of blood and iron was the greatest principle of governance and political paramouncy. His kingship ideology was basically based on Iranian theory that the king was semi-divine and was only answerable to the God.

He underlined the theory that the sultan was the shadow of the almighty Zil-i-allah, and emphasised it by insisting people to perform Sijada and Pathos, which according to theologians were reserved alone for God. He maintained a splendid court with all sorts of Persian type of decorations. He called himself a ruler belonging to the lineage of Afrasiab and maintained utmost dignity in the court. For maintaining discipline and order Mir Hajib was appointed in the court. For maintaining law and order he appointed Bands who were confidential spies. He also appointed Kwajas in  the provinces to maintain accounts and made them responsible to the central government. Kotwals were first time appointed during his reign and Thanas (military out posts) were established. Meos were  supressed and all the rebellions elements were badly trampled. Being acquainted with the court politics and role of Amir in that he abolished Turgan-i-Chalisa.

The greatest contribution of Balban was to consolidate a standing army in the centre. He established Diwan-i-Arz. To keep the army active and vigilant he undertook frequent hunting expedition. He also established check posts to tackle the Mongol invasion.

Alauddin Khalji was one of the greatest military commanders and administrator of the Sultanate period. He adopted the Balkan’s policy of blood and iron and brought very desirable changes in the civil administration. He rcorganised Diwan-i-Arz and started the system of Dagh and Chehra. He also introduced the system of periodical inspection and  apart from all these reforms he started giving cash payment to his army men. Alauddin also abolished the Igtadari system and completely separated the revenue administration from military administration. For strengthening the economic position of the state he imposed Gharai and Charai taxes which was a noble
attempt to expand the tax structure and rationalize the system. Kharaj was increased upto fifty percent, but by adopting the policy of market reforms and establishing Sarai-i-Adal he made goods available to the people on a fixed price. Parvana-Navis and Munhis were also appointed to control market affairs. He also established royal granary to help poor people during natural calamities. This was an endeavor to make his state a welfare state of its own kind.

Alauddin Khalji had been successful not only in his revenue policy but also in his south expedition and tackling the Mongol due to his powerful military. This was a real advancement he made during his period and gave great benefit to the state in all the respects.

Subject: History

Question: 7 Trace the evolution of the religious views of Akbar. Write a note on his policy of Suleh-ikul.

Answer. Akbar’s religious policy was moulded and motivated by his parental and social heritage. He was born and brought up in a Rajput family. His mother herself was Shia muslim. All of Akbar’s teachers and
guides in his boyhood incidently happened to be men of inorthodox religious views. His teacher Abdul Latif was a person of liberal views. Akbar learnt from him the nobel lesson of Suleh-i-kul that means peace with
all, on universal brotherhood. Bairam Khan was another great personality who influenced his approach.

The socio-political environment also affected his attitude towards the common people. Sher Shah Suri was the forerunner of Akbar in adopting the policy of religious toleration. However, Akhar was the first monarch in medieval India who raised the policy of religious toleration to the pinnacle of secularism. The non-muslims constituted the majority of his Indian subjects. Without winning their confidence and active support. Akbar could not hope to establish and consolidate Mughal empire in India. Akbar fully understood the centrifugal tendencies of the complex Indian socio-political order and made a serious attempt to eliminate these by separating religion from politics. The first stage of his tolerant policy towards the Hindus was a spiritual awakenning. He had fully realised that basic unity among religions. As a part of his secular policy he married Rajput princess from Amber in 1562 and received voluntary services of Rajput warriors. In 1962, Akbar declared that women and children of the enemy camp must not be molested by Mughal armies on any account. Akbar encamped at Mathura in 1563 when he came to know that, in accordance with the old practice of the muslim rulers, his government has also imposed a tax on the Hindu pilgrims who wanted to have a dip in the holy water of Yamuna. After this he abolished pilgrim tax throughout his dominions. In 1564, he also abolished Jaziya.

Saikh Mubarak, a liberal minded scholar of Sufi dispositions came into contact with Akbar in 1573, after the conquest of Gujarat. He and his Iwo sons Faizi and Fazal greatly influenced young Akbar. Badayuni mentions that later on he was so influenced by the philosophies of Brahmans and Sramanas that he started believing in the philosophy of transmigration of soul. In 1575. he ordered to built Ibadatkhana an ideal place for religious discource. Thus, he initiated the practice of holding religious discourses there with the learned and the saints of the age: the meetings were held on Thursday night which is a holy day for the Hindus.

Akbar’s proclamation of Majhar was the greatest ever declaration made during the medieval period. The main objective of this declaration was to separate politics from religion and give more importance to royal decree than the orthodox Islamic laws. Akbar called himself Imam-i-Adil or the Chief interpretor of the Islamic Law. In this way, Akbar developed an effective control over Diwan-i-Kaza or the judicial cum relgious department which was earlier dominated by Ulema or Muslim theologians who were always more sympathetic towards the muslim community and rigid on established conventions of  Islam. It seems that by calling himself Mujtahid and
declaration of Majhar he made himself temporal as well as spiritual leader.

Akbar’s spiritual enlightenment is reflected in his doctrines related with Tauhid-i-IlIahi which was later on called Din-i-Ilahi. By founding Din-i-Illahi he was eager to weld all the Indians, irrespective of their caste, creed and religious belief and practices, into a homogenous society. So it seems that like Akbar’s Dhamma the whole approach of Din-i-Illahi was national integration and developing peace and amity in the society.

Question: 8. Explain the principal features of architecture during Akbaris rule. What changes were made in them by Shahjahan?

Ans: Akbar was a great patron of art and architecture. During his period Mughal architecture achieved maturity. Akbar’s building projects were many and varied. He constructed a large number of buildings at Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Lahore, Allahabad and Rohtasgarh. These buildings are mostly constructed of red sand stone with limited use of marble. Being a man of liberal attitude he allowed comingling of indegenous Indian traditions with the West Asiatic architectural scheme. Akbar adopted areuate system only for decorative purpose. We also find use of conventional trabeate system in the architecture of his age. The ornamentation work comprises perforated screen work, artistically painted design on the walls and ceiling in gold or colours. The pillar shafts of his period are generally many sided and have bracket capitals. Red Fort of Agra was his first ambitious project. But due to renovation work done during the period of Shahjahan a major part of this palace has been altered and nothing except Jahangir Mahal has remained intact. The Delhi Gate of this fort was faced with red sand stone is an arched gateway between two massive octagonal bastions.

The most spectacular building activities of Akbar’s reign took place at Fatehpur Sikri which is about 36 km away from Agra.

At Fatehpur Sikri a large number of buildings were made for residential, religious and official purposes. Among residential buildings most important structures are Palace of Jodha Bai, and Turkish Sultana and Birbal. These buildings have domical structure which are similar to the dome shaped buildings of Lodhi period. The palace of Jodha Bai is one of the finest buildings which is identical with a Rajput Haveli of Gujarat and Rajasthan region. Many of the structural  elements and motifs of decoration executed in the indegenous style impart to the palace an architectural character of its own. The house of Turkish Sultana, despite its being a small one storeyed building, is particularly remarkable for the picturesque environment of paved courts and water courses on the one hand and for profused carved decorations, of a rich variety and craftemanship.

The Parch Mahal is also remarkable for its unique design of a five storeyed building with open  pavilions arranged in a pyramidal fashion and their pillars oft varying designs and carvings. The most distinguished among the official buildings at Fatehpur Sikri is the two storeyed Divan-E-Khas. The most magnificent among all the buildings is the Jami Mosque with its lofty gateway called Buland Darwaza and the marvellous tomb of Saikh Salim Shah Chisti situated within its open quardrangle.

In apparent contrast to the lofty Buland Darwaza  is the small but very beautiful tomb of Saikh Salim Chisti built in white marble.

During the reign of Shah Jahan Mughal architecture reached to its pinnacle. He beautified the capital cities of Agra and Delhi with splendid palaces and magnificent monuments and also created numerous elegant buildings at Ajmer, Lahore, Srinagar and other places.

Shahjahan’s is an age of marble buildings. With the change of building material the technique of surface decoration took the form of artistic inlay and multi-coloured stones in marble, representing petals and curving tendrils of conventional flowers. Structurally, too, the style changed. For example, the curve of arch assumed a multifoil shape, usually of nine foils or cups, white pillars have now foliated bases, either tapering or many sided shafts and vaulted bracket capitals. The use of double column is not infringent. The dome placed on a high drum and with constricted neck takes a bulbous shape. Infacts the domes of Shahjahan’s buildings are remarkable for
their extremely pleasing contour. The earlier building activities of Shahjahan are represented by his replacements of remodelling of earlier structures in the forts of Lahore and Agra.

But the architectural activities of Shahjahan were not restricted to replacements only. New building projects were also undertaken side by side, the most important of which are the majestic Red Fort and the magnificient Jami Mosque in his new capital in Sahjahanabad in Delhi. This fort itself is an imposing structure of encircling massive walls, broken by intervals by boldly projecting bastions topped by domed kiosks, and entered through two main gateways, the Delhi and the Lahori Gates. Of the existing buildings there, the more important are the Diwan-i-Am, the Mumtaz Mahal, the Rang Mahal, the Diwan-i-Khas, the Khwabgah, the Hammam and
Muthamman Burj. Very specially the Diwan-i-Khas has been known for Pietra-Dura work done in its interior. The magnificent Jami Masjid of Delhi is one of the most impressive mosques in India. This entire building is
raised on a lofty basement having majestic flights of steps. The three bulbous domes of the mosque with inverted lotus type of pinnacle is also very attractive. The Taj Mahal of Agra which is a marvel created
of marble is the most pleasing monument of his period. The Pietra-Dura work of the interior and inscription inlaid with black marble is a wonderful creation of that period. The four white marble minaret rising in four
storeys and crowned by shaply domes which stand majestically at the corners of the terrace add great attraction to the whole setting.

Thus, it can be said that Shahjahan’s period witnessed a great transition from the forceful and robust architecture of Akbar period to sabre and elegant architectural pattern of matchless beauty in medieval architechure.