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IGNOU HISTORY NOTES : Modern India - THE REVOLT OF 1857

IGNOU HISTORY Study Notes for IAS, UPSC Exams

Modern India 1857-1964

THE REVOLT OF 1857

Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Causes
4.2.1 Exploitation of the Peasantry
4.2.2 Alienation of the Middle and Upper Strata of Indians
4.2.3 Annexation of Princely States
4.2.4 'The Alien Kulc
4.2.5 Impact on the Sepoys
4.2.6 Threat to Religion
4.2.7 The Immediate Cause
4.3 Organisation .
4.4 The Rebellion
4.5 Leadership
4.6 Defeat
4.7 Causes of Failures
4.7. I Lack of a Unified Programme and Ideology
4.7.2 Lack of Unity Among Indians
4.7.3 Lack of Support from the Educated Indians
4.7.4 Disunity Among the Leaders
4.7.5 Military Superiority of the British
4.8 Impact
4.8.1 Transfer of Power
4.8.2 Changes in Military Organisation
4.8.3 Divide and Rule
4.8.4 New Policy Towards the Princess
4.8.5 Search for New Fricnds
4.9 Assessment
4.10 Let Us Sum Up
4.11 Key Words
4.12 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

4.0 OBJECTIVES

In the earlier Units you have aIready been familiarised with the various aspects relating to Imperialism and CoIoniaIism. You are aware that during the period of its rule over the country the East India Company expIoited and harrased the Indian people. Although various sections of Indian people defied the English supremacy at different times, it was the great uprising of 1857, often termed as the First War of Independence, that posed a serious challenge to the English supremacy at an all India level. After reading this unit you wilI be able to:

trace the causes of the uprising of 1857,
know about the various events and conflicts and about the role of various sections of people as well as their leaders,
identify the regions where the English authority was most severely challenged during 1857,
determine the reasons for the failure of the revolt, and
understand its impact and form an opinion about the nature of the revolt.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The revolt of 1857 forms one of the most important chapters in the history of the struggle of the Indian people for liberation from the British rule. It shook the foundations of the British empire in India and at some points it seemed as though the British rule would end for all time to come. What started merely as a sepoy mutiny soon engulfed the peasantry and other civilian population over wide areas in northern India. The upsurge was so widespread that some of the contemporary observers called it cobidism and "national revolt". The hatred of the people for the ferangis was so intense and bitter atlondlem that one observer, W.H. Russell, was forced to write:

In no instance is a friendly glance directed to the white man's carriage.. . . Oh! that language of the eye! Who can doubt! Who can misinterpret it? It is by it alone that I have learnt our race is not even feared at times by many and that by all it is disliked.

In this Unit we will tell you about the various aspects relating to this great uprising.

4.2 CAUSES

How did the Revolt break out? What were its causes? The main reason fofthis was the ruthless exploitation of the Indian people by the British. The British rule which was formally established after the Battle of Plassey in 1757 in Bengal, strove to fill the coffers of the East India Company at the expense of the Indians. The East lndia Company was governed by greedy merchants and traders who could go to any extent to enrich themselves. The Company was formed in 1600, and was given a Royal Charter by Queen Elizabeth which conferred on it the exclusive privilege to trade with the East. Its main aim was to assume the trade monopoly in India. It was not an ordinary merchant company formed for trade but had its train of soldiers who fought battles with the Portugues and the French trading companies in the 17th and 18th centuries in order to establish its trade monopoly. After these rival powers had been defeated it also tried to humble the Indian traders who offered competition. When the Battle of Plassey was won in 1757, the British successfully imposed their trade monopoly over the area under their control, eliminated competition from the Indian traders and forced the artisans to sell their products to them. The artisans were now paid so low that they could hardly survive. The legend has it that the weavers of Dhakacut their thumbs toprotest against such low payments by the East India Company for their superb work on muslin renowned for its fine texture.

4.2.1 Exploitation of the reasantry

Although the trade monopoly enriched the East India Company considerably, its main source of income was now derived from the land. After entrenching itself in Bengal, it spread its power in India through wars and treaties. To extract as much money as possible it devised new systems of land settlements - Permanent, Ryotwari and Mahalwari -each more oppressive than the other. The Permanent Settlement which was effective in Bengal Presidency and in large parts of north India did not recognise the hereditary rights of the peasants on land, which they had earlier enjoyed. The loyal zamindars and revenue-collectors were now given the propietory rights on land. The cultivators were reduced to the status of simple tenants. But even the newly created landlords were not given absolute rights. Their situation was also deliberately left very precarious. They had to pay to the Company 10/1 lth of the entire rent derived from the cultivators and if they failed to do so. their property was sold to others. The other land settlements were no better. In all of these the peasants had to pay beyond their means and any adverse natural shifts like droughts or flood compelled them to go for loans to the money lenders who charged exorbitant interest. This made the peasants so heavily indebted that they were ultimately forced to sell their land to these money lenders. It is because of this that the money lenders were so hated in rural society. The peasantry was also oppressed by petty officials in administration who extracted money on the slightest pretexts. If the peasants went to the law court toseek redress of their grievances, they were bound to be totally ruined. When the crop was good the peasants had to pay back their past debts; if it was bad, they were further indebted. This nexus between the lower officials, law courts and money lenders created a vicious circle which made the peasantry desparate and ready to welcome any opportunity for change of regime.

4.2.2 Alienation of the Middle and Upper Strata of Indians

It was not merely the peasntry that got alienated from the British rule, the middle and upper strata Indians also felt oppressed. During the period of the Mughals or even in the administration of the local princes and chieftains, the Indians served at all the places -both lower and higher. The disappearance of these Indian states and their replacement by the British administration deprived the Indians of higher posts which were now taken mainly by the British. The Indians now servedonly as subordinates andon other petty positions in the administration. Even the most brilliant of Indians were subordinated to the second or third-rate Britishers who as a matter of right, grabbed all the higher paid positions. Further more, the cultural personnel like poets, dramatists, writers, musicians etc. who were earlier employed by the native states were now thrown out. The religious men like Pandits and Maulvis also lost all their former power and prestige.

4.2.3 Annexation of Princely States

The East India Company did not spare even its former allies. The native state of Awadh was annexed by Dalhousie in 1856 on the pretext that Nawab Wazid Ali Shah was mismanaging the state. Even before this he had annexed Satara in 1848 and Nagpur and Jhansi in 1854 on the pretext that the rulers of these states had no natural heir to succeed them after their death. These annexations embittered the rulers of these states, making Rani of Jhansi and Begums of Awadh staunch enemies of the British. Further the British refusal to pay pension to Nana Sahib, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao I1 worsened the situation. The annexation of Awadh was also resented by the sepoys as most of whom came from there.This action hurt their patriotic loyalty and sense of dignity. Moreover, since their relatives had now to pay more taxes on land, it adversely affected the purses of the sepoys themselves.

4.2.4 The Alien Rule

Another important reason of th'e unpopularity of the British was the alien nature of their rule. They never mixed with the Indian people and treated even the upper class Indians with contempt. They had not come to settle in India but only to take money home. So the Indians could never develop any affinity towards them.

4.2.5 Impact on the Sepoys

The revolt of 1857 originated with the mutiny of the Sepoys. These Sepoys were drawn mainly from the peasant population of North and North-West India. As we have seen, the rapacious policies followed by the East India Company were impoverishing and ruining the peasantry. This must have affected the Sepoys also. Infact, most of them had joined the military service in order to supplement their fast declining agricultural income. But as the years passed, they realised that their capacity for doing so declined. They were paid a monthly salary of 7 to 9 Rupees out of which they had to pay for their food, uniform and transport of their private baggage. The cost of maintaining an Indian Sepoy was only one-third of his British counterpart in India. Moreover, the Indian Sepoy was treated roughly by the British officers. They were frequently abused and humiliated. The Indian Sepoy, despite his valour and great fighting capacity. could never rise above the rank of a Subedar while a fresh recruit from England v:as often appointed his superior overnight.

4.2.6 Threat to Religion

Apart from degrading service conditions, another factor inflamed the feelings of the sepoys. An impression was created among them that their religion was being attacked by the British. This belief was also shared by the general civilian population. The proselytizing zeal of the missionaries and some of the British officials instilled fear in the minds of the people that their religion was in danger. At several places conversions to Christianity were reported to be made. The Government maintained the chaplains at its own cost and in some cases also provided police protection to the missionaries. Even the army maintained chaplains at state cost and Christian propaganda was carried among the sepoys. Furthermore, the sepoys were forbidden to wear their castemarks, and in 1856 an Act was passed under which every new recruit had to qive an undertaking to serve overseas, if required. The conservative beliefs of the sepoys were thus shaken and they sometimes reacted strongly. For example in 1824, the 47th Regiment of sepoys at Barrackpore refused to go to Burma by sea-route because their religion forbade them to cross "black water". The British reacted ruthlessly, disbanded the Regiment, and put some of its leaders to death. In 1844, seven battalions revolted on the question of salaries and batta (allowance). Even during the Afghan War from 1839 to 1842 the soldiers were almost on the verge of rrvnlt

The Revolt of 1857

Like sepoys, the people of India had also risen in revolt against the oppressive British rule. The most important of these uprisings were the Kutcha rebellion (1816-32), the Kol uprising in 1831 and the Santhal uprising in 1855-56. The main point with regard to the 1857challenge, however, was that both the military and civilian revolts merged and this made it really formidable.

4.2.7 The Immediate Cause

The atmosphere was so surcharged that even a small issue could lead to revolt. The episode of greased cartridges, however, was a big enough issue to start the rebellion on its own. Dry tinder-box was there and only a spark was needed to set it ablaze. Cartridges of the new Enfield rifle which had recently been introduced in the army had a greased paper cover whose end had to be bitten off-before the cartridge was loaded into rifle. The grease was in some instances made of beef and pig fat. This completely enraged the Hindu and Muslim sepoys a_nd made them believe that the government was deliberately trying to destroy their religion. It was the immediate cause of the revolt.