Literary
Archaeological
Foreign Account
Literary Sources

Proto Historic Period : Harappan Script was ideographic, but has not deciphered.
On the fortification wall of the recently excavated city Dholavira depiction of Harappan pictographs have been found which is the oldest sinage of the world.

Vedic Literature:

• Veda means knowledge
• Vedic literature includes all the four Vedas, Brahmnas, Aryankas and Upanishadas.
• Rigveda is the earliest Veda
• Rig means hymns.
• Rigveda is divided into 10 mandalas.
• Mandalas are further divided in to Astakas and Suktas.
• Rigvedas comprises 1028 hymns.
• Total hymns is all vedas are 20,000.
• The last 11 hymns are known Balakhilya (second to seventh mandala are known as Family Text) which are considered as the oldest part of Rigveda.
• Third mandala of Rigveda comprises Gaytri Mantra, composed by Viswamitra.
• Gaytri Mantra is dedicated to savitur who was deity of Sun family.
• Fourth Mandala consists of references of agricultural work.
• Sixth mandala depicts the word Haryupia which has been related with Harappa.
• Ninth mandala is dedicated to soma.
• First type Krishna's description has been found in Chandogya Upnishad.
• Tenth mandala (Purusha Sukta) describes

About the four varnas known as Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and sudra.

• Samanean ‘to Sing’.
• Except 78 hymns all the other hymns of this Veda have been taken from Rigveda.
• Yajurveda is an elaborate elucidation of rituals.
• Krishan-yajurveda comprises description in prose.
• Atharvveda is related with some non-Aryan traditions like magical charm and spell.
• Brahman literature is descriptive detail about Sacrament, sacrifices and different rites and rituals.
• Aitreya and Kausitaki Brahman are related with Rigveda.
• Satpath Brahmn related with Yajurveda describes about Aryans extention in the Ganget c valley.
• Rituals related with agriculture have- been also described in it.
• Aryankas are philosophical in content.
• Philosophy about the unity of Atma and Parniatma has been described in Upanishadas.
• Upanishadas are called Vedanta.
• Total number of Upanishadas is 108. But According to Sankaracharya number of Upanishadas is 16.
• Katha upnishad describes the story yama and Nachiketa.
• Upanisbadas mainly revolves around South and Brahma.
• Mandukopanished of Atharva Veda depicts satyamev Jayte.
• Rigveda, Samveda and Yayurveda are collectively called Trayee.

Vedang Literature:

1. Sikha (Phonetics) - Yaska is the first known writer on Sikha.
2. Kalpa - (Rituals) - There are three Sutras Dharma, Sraut and Grihya.

• Sulva Sutra describes about geometry
• Nirukta (Elymology)
• Chhanda (Metre) - Pingal was the greatest author on Chhanda Shastra.
• Vyakaran (Grammer) - Panini wrote Astadhyayi, Katyayan Vartika and Patanjali- Mahabhasya.
• Jyotisha (Astrology) - No particular book on Vedanga Jyotitha is available

Great Epics:

1. Ramayan : Elucidation of social ideals of ancient Indian Society.

• 24000, Salokas
• Poet - Valmiki (He is called Adikavi)
• Valmiki for first time used the world Sanskrit as nomenclature of the literary language which was earlier known as Bhasa.

2. Mababharta: Political thought of ancient India can be understood on the basis of this epic.

• 10,0000 slokas (It is called Satsahasri Sainhita and also Pancharu Veda.
• Geeta is a part of Bhisma Parva.
• Harivanshapuran of Mahabharat comprises genealogy of the rulers.

Smirti Literature:

1. Manu Smriti is the earliest smriti.

• It was compiled during the period of Kanava ruler.
• It calls foreign rulers Adham kula Kshatriya.
• It criticises violation of varnasharma order.
• According to it Niyog is Kalivaijya means strictly restricted in kali era.

2. Yajnalkya smriti - first described about the origin of Kaysthas.

3. Narad smriti - describes about rituals related with manumission of seth.

4. Parasar smriti - describes about a number or classes of Brahmanas especially rich class of  land owning Brahmanas who were against accepting alms.

Puranas:

Puranas have five important features.

1. Sarg
2. Pratisarg
3. Vansa
4. Manvantar
5. Varsanucharit

• Vansanucharit means geneology
• Vayu puran mentions about geography of Indian culture and about prominent Indian dynasties like Nanda, Maurya, Sunga, Satvahana and Gupta.
• Srimad bhagvat purana is the. greatest puran in respect to Bhakti cult.
• Vayu and Vishnu Puran mention India's geography.
• Vishnu dharmottara puran depicts about wall paintings and iconometry. 

Technical and Scientific Literature

Avurveda:

• Ashwini Kumars. were physicians of the celestial world who got the knowledge of Ayurveda from Brahma.
• Dhanvantri is considered as father of Ayurveda system.
• Athraveda gives first hand information about Ayurveda.
• Charaka who belonged to kushana period wrote charak samihta.
• Shshurut wrote Shrshrut Samhita which also mentions about surgical operation.
• Vagbhata wrote Astang thidya which mentions about eight major organs of human body.

Veterinary Science:

• Salihanna wrote on Asva Chikitsa.
• Palkappya wrote on Gaja chikitsa

Botany:

Vriksha parasar describes about numerous medicinal herbs and plants.

Astrology/Astronomy:

• Vedang Jyotisha is considered as the earliest text on astrology as on well as astronomy but it is not available.
• Aryabhatta wrote Surya Sidhantika.
• Varahamihir wrote Pancha Sidhantika, Vrihatjatak, L.aghu Jatak and Vrihat Samhita on astrology.
• Brahm Gupta wrote Brahmsphuta Sidhanta.

Mathematics:

• Sulva Sutra describes about vedic alters.
• This is the earliest text which comprises information on geometry.
• Aryabhatta wrote Arybhattiyam which describes about decimal system and about zero.
• Bhaskaracharya wrote Lilavati

Architecture:

• Manual of Architecture is known as Silpa Sastra.
• Earliest information about painting and iconometry is given in Visnudharmottara Purana.
• Mayamatta, Ishan Visva gurudeo Padhati and Aparajitpnksha are some of the best known texts on Indian Architecture.

Biographical Literature:

• Banabhatta - Elarsha Chant (Pushyabhuti ruler of Kanauj).
• Vilhan - Vikramanakdevcharitam (Chalukyan ruler of Kalyani)
• Anand bhatta - Ballal charita
• Sandhyakarnandi - Rampalcharit
• Jayanak - Prithavi Raj Chant
• Hem chandra - Kumar Pal Chant
• Panmal Gupta - Navshashsanka Chant
• Jayagondar - Kalingatupani
• Otakuttan - Kulatingam

Classical Sanskrit:

Bhasa wrote 14 plays (Swapanvasha-duttam and Pratirna Yangandhanaiyan are his most famous plays)

Asvaghosh

1. Buddha Charitam — (Buddha's biography)
2. Saudarananda (Story of Suqdani and Anand)
3. Sutralankar (Philosophical text)

Sudraka Mrichcha Katikam (First realistic play in Sanskrit)

Visakhadutta

1. Mudsarakshasa- (It is related with Kautilyals diplomatic strife with Mahamatya of Dhanananda)
2. Devi Chandraguptam (It is related with Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya)
3. Kalidas Epic - Raguvansham

Lyrics:

• Meghadutam
• Kumar Sambhvam

Plays:

1. Vikramo varsiya
2. Malvikagni mitram
3. Abhijayana Shakuntalam

• Bharvi - Kirataijuniyam
• Magh — Sisupal Vadharn.

Statecraft:

Kautilya - Arthasastra

• Book was written on polity.
• This book was discovered by Sham Ji Sastri
• It has 15 Adhikaranas
• It describes about Saptang theory of state and enlightened despotism of Maurya period with descriptive detail about administration.

Kamandaka - Nitisar

• It is a commentary on Arthasastra.
• It was written during Gupta period

Vrihaspati - Arthasastra

• Duties of an ideal rulers have been described in this text.

Histriography:

1. Kaihan - Rajtarangini I
2. Jon Raj - Rajtarangini II
3. Srivar and Suka - Rajtarangin III

Buddhist Literature:

Tripitaka

1. Sutta Pitak - Teachings and preaching of Lord Buddha
2. Vinay Pitak - Monastical rules and regulations/discipline and order.
3. Abhidhamm Pitak - Metaphysical and esoteric ideas

Sutta Pitak

1. Diggha Nikaya
2. Majjim Nikaya
3. Samyukta Nikaya
4. Anguttara Nikaya
5. Khuddak Nikaya

Khuddak Path

1. Dhanima Pad - (This is Known as Bhagvat Geeta of Buddhism)
2. Etivethhka - Buddha teachings Viman Vethu, Peta Vethu, Therigatha and Therigatha are also part of it.

Vinay Pitaka:

Suta Vibhang

• Maha Vibhang
• Bhikshunivibhanga

Khandaka

• Mahavagg
• Chulla Vagg

Parivar

Note - Milindapanho, written in Paliby Nagsena describes Nagasena’s discourses with Menader.

Mahayan

1. Mahayan Sradhotpad Sastra
2. Sumangal vilasini.
3. Vajrayana

1. Manju Sri mul Kalpa
2. Guhya Samajtantra

Jain Literature:

• l2 Angas
• 12 Upanga
• 10 Prakirnaka
• 6 Chhedli Sutra
• 4 Mula Sutra

Acharang Sutra - Monastical discipline

Bhagvatti Suta - Life and teaching of Mahavira LF

Nayadhani Kahasutra - Gospel of Mahavira

Tattvarthadigam sutra - This accepted my both Digambura and Svetambara.

Churnika - commentary on Angas and Upangas.

Epigraphical Sources:

1. The earliest written records have been found from Harappa, but the script has not been deciphered.
2. James Princep deciphered Ashokan Inscription in 1837.
3. Ashokan inscription’s were written in Prakrit language and. mainly in Brahmi script.
4. Only two of his inscription found from Mansehra and Sahbajagarhi are written in Kharosthi script.
5. Kandhar inscription of Ashoka has been written in Greek and Arabic a scripts.
6. Mahasthan and Sahgaura inscripiion describe about great famine and help given by the ruler to his starved citizens. Sahgaura Inscription is depicted on copper plate.
7. Maski, Gurjara, Odegolam and Nittur inscriptions of Ashoka describe his name.
8. Only in Bhabru inscription Ashoka has called him self Magadh Raj and a ruler dedicated himself to Budha, Dhamma and Sangha.
9. Dhandeva's inscription of Pusyamitra describe about Asvamegha Yajan performed by him.
10. Helioderus pillar inscription also called Besanagar Garudadhwaj describes about the cult of Panchvrishtii Veera.
11. Ghosuandi inscription describes about Bhagvat cult.
12. Girnar inscription was first inscription of Sanskrit language about Saka ruler Rudradaman I.
13. Nanaghat inscription of Naganika describes about Satkarmi I.
14. Eran inscription of Bhanugupta provides the first evidence of Sati.
15. Allahabad inscription of Samudra Gupta describes about his conquests.
16. Udaigiri inscription belongs to the period of Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya.
17. Damodar pur, Garhva and Karamdanda inscriptions describe about rules and regulations related with land grant.
18. Bhitari inscription, depicts Sakanda Guptas victory over Hunas.
19. Madhuvan and Vanskhera inscriptions belong to the period of Harsha and have signature of Harsha.
20. Aihole inscription written by Ravikirti depicts the name of Kalidasa.
21. Uttermerur inscription depicts local self government of Chola period.
22. Kudmiyamalaya Polukottai inscription depicts about Indian music and Ragas.

Numismatical Sources:

1. Harappans did not use coin.
2. Rigveda mentions Niska griva.
3. Later Vedic literature mention about Satman and Krishanal.
4. Coinage system evolved in 6th cent. B.C.
5. The earliest coins belong to Magadha and Kosala.
6. The early coins are punch marked.
7. Our earliest coin was made of silver.
8. They have been called Kasarpan.
9. Arthashastra mentions about Pan, masaka and Kakini.
10. Indo-Bacterians introduced in India, gold coins. On their coin the figure of King & Queen and date were found.
11. Coins of Vim Kedphises depict trident symbol of Lord Siva.
12. Kaniska’s coins depicts Buddha’s figure.
13. Kushanas issued purest gold coins in India. Those coin were called Dinaras.
14. Kushans and Kunindas never issued Silver coin.
15. Yaudheyas depicted figure of war lord Kartikeya.
16. First of all on saka coin Indian God Lord Krishna were shown.
17. Samudra Gupta issued Asvamegha type of coins.
18. Chandra (Gupta Vikrarnaditya was the first Gupta ruler who issued silver coin.
19. Kumargupta also issued Asvaniegha type of coins.
20. Samudra Gupta had issued Veenavadak, Vyaghra lanta and Asvarohi types of coins.
21. Satvahana’s never issued gold coin. They issued Silyer, Copper, lead and potin.
22. Only one gold coin of Harsha period has been found.
23. In south India gold coins were known as Pon.
24. In pre-medieval period Gadhaiya coins were in circulation in western India.
25. Huen Tsang mentions that conch and shells were used as means of sale and purchase.
26. Paper Rupees were first issued by Lord Canning (1860 AD).

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