(IGP) IAS Pre Paper - 2: GS - English Language & Comprehension Skills - Sentence (Part - 1)

Language is the major means by which we communicate and interact with others. When we speak or write, we use words. These words are generally used in groups e.g.: A bad workman quarrels with his tools. A group of words arrange din a manner which makes a complete sense is called a Sentence. Based on meaning and sense, the sentence can be classified as :

1. Declarative or assertive
2. Imperative
3. Interrogative
4. Exclamatory

Parts of Speech

Words are classified into different kinds or groups called Parts of Speech according to their use and function in a sentence. They are eight in number-Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection.

Noun

The Noun is a word used as the name of a person, place or thing. The word thing includes (i) all objects that we can see, touch, hear, smell or taste, and (ii) something we can think of but cannot perceive through our senses. There are five different kinds of noun.

They are :

1. Proper Noun
2. Common Noun
3. Collective Noun
4. Material Noun
5. Abstract Noun

Kinds of Noun

The following chart will make you familiar with the different kinds of noun :

Pronoun

The repetition of a noun in a sentence or a set of sentences is really boring. So, Grammar prescribes that instead of repeating the noun, we may use a word (for that noun) called pronoun. This leads us to a precise definition of Pronoun.

The Pronoun is a word that we use instead of a noun.

Many people commit grammatical mistakes because they lack thorough knowledge regarding the use of pronouns.

The following facts can be stated on the basis of the above definition:

1. A pronoun must itself be something equivalent to a noun.
2. As a rule, the pronoun should not be mentioned until the noun has been mentioned.
3. A pronoun must be of the same number, gender and person as the noun it stands for.

Pronouns have numerous subclasses. Though there are several features that pronouns have in common with nouns, yet there are some features which distinguish them from nouns. They are as follows:

1. They do not admit determiners;
2. They often have an objective case;
3. They often have person distinction;
4. They often have overt gender contrast;
5. Singular and plural forms are often not morphologically related.

Kinds of Prnouns

I. Personal Pronouns : A pronoun which is used instead of the name of a person is known as a Personal Pronoun.

Examples:

• I, my, mine, me, we, our, ours, us.(First Person)
• Thou, thine, thy, thee.
• You, your, yours. (Second Person)
• He, his, him, she, her, hers, it, its,
• they, their, theirs, them. (Third Person)

II. Reflexive or Emphatic Pronouns : When self is added to my, your, him, her, it and selves to our, your, them, we get Compound Personal Pronouns. When the action done by the subject turns back (reflects) upon the subject, ‘self’ is added to the pronoun and becomes a Reflexive or Emphatic pronoun.

Examples

1. I hurt myself
2. He hurt himself.
3. They hurt themselves.

III. Demonstrative Pronouns: The pronouns which are used to point out the objects which they refer to are called Demonstrative Pronouns.

Examples:

1. This is a gift from my father.
2. These are merely excuses.
3. Mumbai mangoes are better than those of Bangalore.
4. That is the fort of Allahabad.

IV. Indefinite Pronouns : All pronouns which refer to persons or things in a general way and do not refer to any particular person or thing are called Indefinite Pronouns.

Examples:

1. Somebody has stolen my watch.
2. Few escaped unhurt.
3. Did you ask anybody to come?
4. Nobody was there to welcome her.

V. Distributive Pronouns: Each, either, neither are called Distributive Pronouns because they refer to persons or things-one at a time. For this reason, they are always singular and thus followed by the verb in singular.

Examples:

1. Each of these men received a reward.
2. Either of you can go.
3. Neither of the accusations is true.

VI. Relative Pronouns: A Relative Pronoun refers or relates to some noun going before, which is called its Antecedent.

Examples:

1. I met Hari who used to live here.
2. I have found the pen which I had lost.
3. Here is the book that you lent me.

VII. Interrogative Pronouns: These pronouns are used to ask questions.

Examples

1. Whose book is this?
2. What will all the neighbors say?
3. What do you prefer, tea or coffee?

Note: Interrogative pronouns can also be used in asking indirect questions. Consider the following examples:

1. I asked who was speaking.
2. Tell me what you have done.
3. Say which you would like best.

Adjective

An Adjective is a word that qualifies or adds something to the meaning of a noun.

1. Madan is a good boy.         (Boy of what kind?)
2. He gave me ten bananas.    (How many bananas’?)
3. We do not like that girl.      (Which girl?)

In sentence 1, good tells what kind of boy Madan is.
In sentence 2, ten shows how many bananas he gave me.
In sentence 3, that points out which girl is meant.

4. (a) Oral means by word of mouth.
(b) Verbal means concerned with words.

Examples

He sent mean oral, message.

There is not much verbal difference between the two statements.
Oral is the opposite of written.

5. (a) Either means one of the two or each of the two.
(b) Neither is the negative of either.

Examples

1. You may buy either of these two chairs. (One of the two)
2. Either book will do.
3. There are shady trees on either side of the road. (Each)
4. I can speak on either side.
5. He can write with either hand.
6. I can speak on neither side.
7. Neither of them could speak on the stage.
8. He can write with neither hand.
9. Neither of the two pens is costly.

6. (a) Sick means slight indisposition.
(b) Ill means unwell, indisposed.

Examples

1. I am feeling sick.
2. He has been seriously ill for the past ten days.

Note: Sick and ill both express the idea of being in bad health, affected with disease etc., but sick is more commonly used than ill, which is somewhat formal (I am feeling sick. He is ill with the flu.)

7. (a) Enough is used with both singular and plural number. It conveys the sense of sufficiency.

Examples

1. There is enough sugar in the pot.
2. There are enough eggs in the basket.

8. (a) Only means alone of its or their kind; sole.
(b) Nearest means close in distance, time or relation.
It is the superlative of the adjective near.
(c) Next expresses position. It means just before or after in time, space, degree or rank.

Examples

1. Sudha is the only daughter of her parents.
2. The nearest shopping complex from our house is two kilometres away.
3. How far is it to the next petrol pump?
4. The State Bank of India is the nearest bank.
5. The next shop is mine.

9. (a) Later expresses late in time.
(b) Latter means second in position or order.
(c) Latest means most recent.
(d) Last means final in position or order.

Note: Later or latter are comparative degrees of late and latest or last are superlative degrees of late.

Examples

1. The train arrived an hour later than the scheduled time.
2. The latter position was better than the former.
3. What is the latest news’?
4. He was the first to come and last to go

Verb

Verb is a word used to tell or assert something about some person or thing.
There are three popular kinds of verbs Auxiliary Verb, Ordinary Verb and Verb of Incomplete Predication.

The verb may tell us:

1. What a person or thing does; as
   Savita swims.
   The bulb lights.
2. What is done to a person or thing; as
   Mohan is punished.
3. What a person or thing is; as
   The dog is dead.

There are some sentences in which the action passes over from the subject to the object. Verbs used in these sentences are called Transitive Verbs. These verbs are followed by an object.

Examples

1. The boy picked the stone.
2. The child hugged the mother.
3. The student wrote a letter.

In sentence t, the action denoted by the verb picked passes over from the doer or subject boy to the object stone. The verb picked is, therefore, a transitive verb. Most verbs we use are transitive verbs as they take an object.

Intransitive Verbs are those denoting the action that does not pass over from the subject to the object. These verbs denote an action which does not pass over to an object or which expresses a state or being. These verbs are not followed by an object.

Examples

1. The baby sleeps.
2. Sunil ran a long distance.
3. The table is in the office.

In sentence 1, the action denoted by the verb sleeps, stops with the doer or subject baby and does not pass over to an object. The verb sleeps is, therefore, an intransitive verb. Verbs that are intransitive in their most common meanings include appear, come, fall, go, happen, matter, sleep. If a verb is not followed by an object, it cannot be made passive.

Agreement of the Verb With the Subject: A Detailed Discussion

An Introductory Note

‘Verb-Subject’ agreement plays a very important role in English Grammar. Even those who enjoy a good command over the language, sometimes commit mistakes. In the following discussion, we have given sixteen rules that teach the verb-subject agreement.

Rule 1: If two or more singular nouns are joined by and, the verb used will be plural.

Examples

1. He and I were going to the market.
2. Ram and Mohan are friends.

In the above sentences, ‘verb-subject’ agreement is as follows :

(iii) Verbs which derive their 2nd and 3rd forms by the addition of -d, -ed, or -t and without a change in the vowel; as:

(iv) Verbs that have a vowel change as well as the addition of a suffix; as

(v) In some cases, the verbs retain their original identity in all the three forms. They end in -d or -t; as:

Note: There are no hard and fast rules by which one can make out, by looking at a verb, how it is going to change its form. Therefore, in order to be able to use verbs correctly in all their forms, it is essential to develop familiarity with them. This can be done by reading and if possible memorising the list of verbs, with their different forms.

Adverb

An Adverb is a word that qualifies (i) a verb; (ii) an adjective; (iii) another adverb; (iv) a preposition.

Examples

• He runs fast.
• In this sentence, the word fast is an adverb because it qualifies the verb runs.
• She is quite an intelligent girl.
• In this sentence, the word quite is an adverb because it qualifies the adjective intelligent.
• She can run very fast.
• In this sentence, the word very is an adverb because it qualifies the adverb fast.
• The ship has sailed right round the world.
• In this sentence, the word right is an adverb qualifying the preposition round.
• * Spoil takes-t as well as ed to form past tense and past participle.

Kinds of Adverbs

According to their use, adverbs are subdivided into three classes :

1. Simple
2. Interrogative
3. Relative

I. Simple Adverbs : Simple adverbs are used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective or an adverb.
These can be distinguished from one another by their meanings.

(a) Time (Which shows when)
He will soon arrive.
He was taken ill yesterday.
He did this before, and you have done it since.

(b) Place (Which shows where)
We must rest here. He went there.
The book is under the table.
My house is near the market.

(c) Frequency (Which shows how often)
He always stood by his master.
He did this once, but he will not do it again.
He often goes for a morning walk.

(d) Manner, Quality or State (Which shows how or in what manner)
She spoke loudly.
He behaved foolishly.
He did his work slowly.
I worked honestly.

(e) Quantity, Extent or Degree (Which shows how much or in what degree or to what extent)
She is quite an intelligent girl.
He is clever enough for me.
She is a very beautiful girl.

(f) Affirming or Denying
He did not come after all.

Examples Yes, no, not, yea, nay, not at all, by all means, etc.
As pronouns save the repetition of a noun, these adverbs save the repetition of a sentence.

(g) Reason
I fell off my bicycle, hence the bruises.
He therefore left office.

II. Interrogative Adverbs: This is the name given to those adverbs that are used for asking questions.

(a) Time
When do you intend to pay him?
How long will you remain here?

(b) Place
Whether are you going?
Where did you stop?

(c) Number/Frequency
How often does he visit you?
How mane persons attended the meeting?

(d) Manner, Quality or State
How are you today? (In what state of health)
How did you solve the sums?

(e) Quantity or Degree
How far was the statement true? (to what extent)

(f) Cause or Reason
Why did you do this’? (for what reason)
Wherefore did she weep?

Note: The adverb how is sometimes used in an exclamatory sense

How nice of you to help me!
What in the sense of quantity or degree is similarly used in an exclamatory sense :
What a beautiful flower it is!

III. Relative Adverbs: Relative adverbs are the same in form as interrogative adverbs, but instead of asking questions, they join two sentences together.
These adverbs are called relative for two reasons- (1) because they relate to some antecedent, understood or expressed; (2) because they are formed from relative pronouns.

(a) The Antecedent understood :
This is where we work.
Let us know when you will leave.

(where = the place where we work)
(when = the time when you will leave)

(b) The Antecedent expressed
This is the place where we work.
Let us know the time when you will leave.

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