The Conjunction

A word that is used to join words or phrases or sentences is called a Conjunction.

Examples

1. God made the country and man made the town.
2. She must work hard, or she will fail.
3. Three and three make six.
4. Madan and Sonu are brothers.

In (i) and (ii), the conjunctions join two sentences. In (iii) and (iv), the conjunctions join two words only.

Classes of Conjunctions

Conjunctions are sub-divided into two main classes

(i) Co-ordinating Conjunctions join words, phrases or clauses of co-ordinate (of equal) rank.
He is guilty as well as you.

(ii) Subordinating Conjunctions join a subordinate or dependent clause to a principal clause (that is, to a clause of higher rank).

(i) Coordinating Conjunctions are of four kinds

(a) Cumulative or copulative which merely add one statement or fact to another; as,
He is not only honest, but also hard working.
We carved not a line, and raised not a stone.
Cumulative conjunctions are- and, both and, as well as, not only but also.

(b) Adversative conjunctions which express opposition or contrast between two statements; as.
He is sad but hopeful.
Adversative conjunctions as but, whereas, while, only, and still.

(c) Disjunctive or Alternative which express a choice between two alternatives; as,
Work hard, else you will repent.
Either he is mad or he feigns madness.
Disjunctives are either.... or, neither.... nor, or, else.

(d) Illative which express an inference; as,
He will die someday, for all men are mortal.

(ii) Subordinating Conjunctions may be classified according to their meaning, as follows :
1. Of Time : When, whenever, while, as, before, ere, after, since, until, till.

Examples

• Ram has not phoned since he went to Delhi.
• She returned home after he had gone.

2. Of Place: Where, wherever, whence, whether.

Examples

• You can go wherever you like.
• Sita found her frock where she had left it.

3. Of Cause or Reason : Because, since, as, that.

Examples

• I am glad that you like it.
• He will pass the examination because he has worked hard.

4. Of Purpose : That (in order that), lest.

Examples

• We cat that we may live.
• He worked hard lest he should fail in the examination.

5. Of Result or Consequence: That.

Examples

• Mina behaved in such a manner that all disliked her.
• He was so tired that he could scarcely stand.

6. Of Condition : If unless, whether.

Examples

• Sita will dance if Reema dances.
• You cannot succeed unless you work hard.

7. Of Comparison : As, than.

Examples

• Hail is as intelligent as Shyam.
• Madan is more intelligent than Manoj.

8. Extent or Manner : As.

Examples

• Men will reap as they sow.
• You may do as you please.

By Tense, we understand the correspondence between the form of the verb and our concept of time.
Tense shows (a) the time of an action (b) its degree of completeness.
The verb may tell us:

1. That an action is done at the present time, e.g., I see the blue sky.
2. That an action was done in the past time, e.g., He saw the blue sky.
3. That an action will be done in the future time, e.g., He will see the blue sky.
4. That an action was done at some past time, viewed as future (‘uture in the past), e.g., He said that he would be sixteen in three weeks’ time.

A verb, then, has three main times or tenses, viz. the Present, the Past and the Future. To each tense, there are four different forms :

Simple which denotes present, past or future time in its simplest form : ‘I play’, ‘I played’, ‘I shall play’. The action (in present, past or future time) is mentioned simply, without anything being said about the completeness or incompleteness of the action.

Continuous which denotes that the event (in present,. past or future time) is still continuing or not yet completed : ‘I ant reading’, I was reading’, ‘I shall be reading’.

Perfect which denotes that the event (in present, past or future time) is in a completed or perfect state : ‘I have played’, `I had played’, `I shall have played’.

Perfect Continuous which combines the meanings of the two preceding forms, ‘I have been reading’, ‘I had been reading’, ‘I shall have been reading’. The Present Continuous is used to express an action going on at the time of speaking, e.g.,

The boys are flying kites.
He is playing cricket.
I am reading a book.

(a) It also sometimes expresses habit or custom; as, He is attending college very regularly these days.

(b) For a temporary action which may not be actually happening at the time of speaking; as, I am reading David Copperfield. (but I am not reading it at this moment).

(c) For an action that is planned or arranged to take place in the near future; as,
I ant going to my father tomorrow.
She is going to write a book.

The Present Perfect invariably connects a completed event in one sense or the other with the present time.
e.g., I have lived twenty years in Lucknow. (that is, I ant living there still and I began to live there twenty years ago.) I have passed my examination; I passed it two years ago.

He has been to London; he went there in 1948.
The present perfect denotes an action completed at the time of speaking; as,
I have solved all the sums.
He has visited all the Indian temples.
She has read most of Scott’s novels.

The verb in this tense is used in its third form.

(1) An affirmative sentence of the present perfect tense is formed

1. by adding has before the verb if the subject is in the singular number, e.g., He has eaten. It has eaten. Ram has eaten.
2. by adding have before the verb if the subject is in the plural number or in the singular number of only the first and the second person, e.g., I have eaten. They have eaten. You have eaten. The children have eaten.

(2) A negative sentence of the present perfect tense is formed by simply inserting not between has or have and verb, e.g., She has not eaten. I have not eaten. They have not eaten, etc.

(3) An interrogative sentence of the present perfect tense is formed by putting the subject between has or have and verb, e.g., Have you eaten? Has she eaten’? Have I eaten? Have they eaten’?

Present Perfect Continuous is used for an action which began sometime in the past and is still continuing, e.g.,

He has been sleeping for five hours (and is still sleeping).
I have been doing this for several months.
I have been writing this book for four years.

This tense is sometimes used for an action already finished. In such cases, the continuity of the activity is emphasized as an explanation of something, e.g., Why are your clothes so wet? I have been watering the garden.

Present ‘Tense at a Glance

Under this tense, the verb Is used in the first form with ing added to It.

(1) An affirmative sentence of the present perfect continuous is formed by adding have been or has been to the verb according to the number or person of the subject e.g., I have been eating. You have been eating. He has been eating.

(2) A negative sentence of this tense is formed by inserting not between has/have and been, e.g., I have not been eating. You have not been eating. He has not been eating.

(3) An interrogative sentence of this tense is formed by interchanging has/have and the subject. e.g., Have I been eating’? Have they been eating? Have you been eating? Has he been eating?

The Simple Past or Past Indefinite is used to denote an action in the past; e.g.,
My father died yesterday.
He left office at 5.30 p.m.
She lived in Delhi for 10 years.
Babur founded the Mughal Empire in India.

It also denotes a habitual action in the past, e.g., We studied and planned for years. She always carried a bag.

The verb in this tense is used in its second or past form.

(1) In an affirmative sentence, the form of the verb remains the same whatever the number or person of the subject, e.g., I ate. She ate. They ate. You ate.

(2) In a negative sentence of the simple past, did not is added to the verb and the verb used in its original or present form, e.g., I did not eat. She did not eat. They did not eat. You did not eat.

(3) In an interrogative sentence of the simple past, the subject is placed between did and the verb. The verb, like in the negative, is used in its original or present form, e.g., Did you eat? Did they eat? Did I eat? Did she eat’?

The Past Continuous expresses an action going on at some time in the past; e.g.,
When she came into my room. I was studying.
When Rajan called upon his friend, he was singing.

It was getting dark.
The method for making each continuous sentences is the same as that for making present continuous in the affirmative, interrogative and negative. The only difference is that was will be substituted for is/am and were for are, e.g.,
I was eating. You were eating. She was eating. They were eating. Or
Was I eating? Were you eating? Was she eating? Were they eating? Or
I was not eating. She was not eating. They were not eating. You were not eating.

The Past Perfect is used whenever we wish to say that an action had been completed before another was commenced.

The verb expressing the previous action is put into the past perfect tense. The verb expressing the subsequent action is put into the simple past.

(a) Previous Action                         Subsequent Action
    (Past Perfect)                                  (Simple Past).
He had been ill for two days             when the doctor was sent for.
He had seen many foreign cities        before he returned home.

(b) Subsequent Action                                                 Previous Action
The sheep fled in great for a wolf had entered haste         the field.
The ship was sunk by a storm                                      which had suddenly sprung up.

The past perfect ought never to be used except to show the priority of one past event over another. The past perfect is formed by the same method as the present perfect tense in the affirmative, interrogative and negative. The only difference is that had is substituted for has and have, e.g., She had eaten. I had eaten. They had eaten.

We had eaten. Or
Had they eaten? Had you eaten? Had I eaten? Had they eaten? Or
She had not eaten. They had not eaten. I had not eaten. You had not eaten.

Past Perfect Continuous is used for an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued up to that time.

At that time, he had been writing a novel for two months. When Mr. Mukherji came, to school in 1985, Mr. Anand had already been teaching there for five years.

The method of forming a sentence of this tense is the same as that for” present perfect continuous in the affirmative, interrogative and negative. The only difference is that had is substituted for have and has, e.g., I had been eating. You had been eating. They had been eating.

We had been eating. Or
Had I been eating? Had you been eating? -Had we been eating? Or
I had not been eating. You had not been eating. They had not been eating, etc.

Past perfect tense in question formis used with an extension to make it an affirmative sentence, e.g., Had she been working regularly she would have completed the project yesterday.

The Simple Future or Future Indefinite expresses simply future time, i.e. the time that has not conic vet, near or remote; as,
He will come tomorrow.
Prizes will be distributed next week.
In this tense, the verb is used in its original or present form.

(1) In an affirmative sentence, will is added before the verb whatever be the number or person of the subject.
e.g., I will eat. You will eat. They will eat. He will eat.

(2) In a negative sentence, not is added after will of the affirmative sentence, e.g., I will not eat. You will not eat. They will not eat. He will not eat.

(3) In an interrogative sentence of the simple future, the subject is placed between will and verb, e.g., Will I eat? Will you eat? Will they eat? Will he eat?

The Future Continuous represents an action that will keep going on at some point in future time; as, He will be playing cricket tomorrow afternoon. I shall be writing the book then.

Past Tense at a Glance

In this tense, ing is added to the verb.

(1) An affirmative sentence is formed by adding will before the verb, e.g., I will be eating. You will be eating. He will be eating. They will be eating.

(2) A negative sentence is formed by inserting not between will and be of the affirmative sentence, e.g.. I will not be eating. He will not be eating. They will not be eating. You will not be eating, etc.

(3) An interrogative sentence is formed by placing the subject between will and be, e.g., Will I be eating? Will they be eating? Will he be eating? Will you be eating’?

The Future Perfect This tense is used in two different senses: (a) to denote the completion of some event in future time; and (b) to denote the completion of some event in past time.

(a) He will have reached home before the rain sets in. (The reaching of home will be completed before the setting in of rain.)

(b) I shall have finished my work by then.

In future perfect tense, the verb is used in its third form.

(1) An affirmative sentence is formed by adding will have before the verb, e.g., I will have eaten. They will have eaten. He will have eaten. You will have eaten.

(2) A negative sentence is formed by putting not between will and have, e.g., I will not have eaten (by then). He will not have eaten (by tomorrow), etc.
Note: This form of the tense is rarely used.

(3) An interrogative sentence of this tense is formed by placing the subject between will and have, e.g., Will they have eaten’? Will he have eaten? Will you have eaten?

Future Perfect Continuous indicates an action represented as being in progress over a period of time that will end in future; as,

By next July, we shall have been living here for two years. When he gets his degree, he will have been studying in Oxford for four years.

In this tense, ing is added to the verb. The sentences of this tense are normally of the affirmative type only. A sentence is formed by adding shall/will have been to the verb, e.g., I will have been eating. We shall have been eating. They will have been eating.

Future Tense at a Glance

Voice (Active and Passive)

Voice is that branch of grammar which studies the form that the verb takes in a sentence to determine the status of the subject and the object.

Voice can be studied under the following headings:

(1) Active Voice: A verb is said to be in the Active Voice when its subject acts or when the emphasis is on the doer or the subject. The active voice is so called because the person or thing denoted by the subject acts.

Example

• Mohan sang a song.
• Here, the subject Mohan is acting.

(2) Passive Voice : A verb is in the Passive Voice when the subject is being acted upon or when the emphasis is on the object or the work done. The passive voice is so called because the person or thing denoted by the subject that is not active but passive, and suffers or receives some action.

Example

• A song was sung by Mohan.
• Here, the subject is being acted upon.

Note: (i) Voice changes occur only in transitive verbs.
(ii) The perfect continuous form of all the three tenses and future continuous cannot be changed into passive voice.

Examples

• Present : He has been doing the work. (No change of voice)
  Past : He had been doing the work. (No change of voice)
• Future : He will have been doing the work. (No change of voice)
  Future Continuous : He will be doing the work. (No change of voice)

The reason is that if the change of voice is done in these tenses, then the verb is to be used twice which is wrong.

Example

He has been doing the work. (Active)
The work has been being done by him. (Passive)
This is a wrong sentence as the verb is used twice. Similar is the case with the other sentences.
Let us look at some more examples of active and passive voice.

Active                                                                     Passive
Mohan has burnt the shop                .             The shop has been burnt by Mohan.
People speak English all over the world.         English is spoken all over the world.
They built the bridge last year.                        The bridge was built last year.
The boy beat the child.                                   The child was beaten by the boy.

From the above examples, it is clear that we use active voice when we are more interested in the doer or agent. And we use passive voice when we are more interested in the object of the action.

As you will notice above, most passive voice sentences drop the agent or the doer either because it is not known or because it is understood and hence not needed or also because it is not important.

In order to convert active voice into passive voice, certain rules need to be observed.

(1) First of all, the arrangement of the words in a sentence in the active voice is changed.

• Active Voice : Subject + Verb + Object
  Mohan read a book.
• Passive Voice: Object + helping verb + main verb + by + subject
  A book was read by Mohan.

Thus, the subject of the active voice becomes the object of the passive voice.

(2) Change of Pronoun

1. When he as subject of active voice becomes object of the passive voice, it changes into him. Similarly,
2. She becomes her
3. We becomes us
4. They becomes them
5. I becomes me

3. Changes required under each tense

I. Present Tense

(a) Present Indefinite : Assertive sentence Here, we need to change the first formof the verb into the third formand add is/am/are before it, depending on the number and person of the subject in the active voice.

The point becomes more clear from the following formula

Active: S + V,(s, es) + O
Passive: O + is/ am/ are + V, + by + S

Examples

1. The boy makes toys. — Active
   Toys are made by the boy. — Passive
2. You vex me. – Active
   I am vexed by you. – Passive
3. She annoys him. – Active
   He is annoyed by her. – Passive

Thus, you will notice that apart from following the first two rules, we have changed the verb from the first to the third form. We have also added is/am/are according to the nature of the object in the active voice which has become the subject of the passive voice.

For transforming interrogative sentences under this tense, all you need to do is, put is/am/are before the subject (which was object in the active voice) in the passive voice.
We can also use the following formula-

Active- Do/ Does + S + V₁+ O
Passive- Is/ am/ are + O + V₃ + by + S

Example

Does she want a book? – Active
Is a book wanted by her? – Passive

Note: For interrogative sentences of the active voice beginning with who, the passive voice will be formed by changing who into by whom.

Active- who + S + V,(s, es) + O
Passive- by whom + is/ am/ are + V₃?

Example

• Who teaches you English?
• By whom are you taught English?

(b) Present Continuous: Assertive sentences

To get the passive voice, the verb is used in its third form and being is inserted between is/am/are and the verb.
For the above point, we get the following formula

Active- S + is/ am/ are + V₁ ing + O
Passive- O+ is/ am/ are + being + V₃ + by + S

Example

I am eating an egg. – Active
An egg is being eaten by me. – Passive

In case of an interrogative sentence, is/am/are will be placed before the subject.

Active- is/ am/ are + S + V₁ing + O
Passive- is/ am/ are + O + being + V₃+ by + S

Example

Am I eating an egg? – Active
Is an egg being eaten by me? – Passive

(c) Present Perfect: Here, been is put between has/have and verb (third form) in a passive voice sentence.
We get the following formula for the above point

Active- S + has/ have + V₃ + O
Passive- O + has/ have + been + V, + by + S

Example

Sita has eaten the fruit. – Active
The fruit has been eaten by Sita. – Passive

Formula for Present Perfect InterrogativeActive-
has/ have + S + V₃ + O?
Passive- has/ have + O + been + V₃ + by + S
Active- who + has/ have + V₃ + O?
Passive- by whom + O + been + V₃ ?

Examples

• Have you seen the play? – Active
• Has the play been seen by you? – Passive
• Who has written this letter? – Active
• By whom has this letter been written? – Passive

II. Past Tense

The rules for transforming the past tense active voice sentences are the same as that for the present tense with necessary modifications.

Formula for the past tenses are:

(a) Past Indefinite

Active- S + V₂ + O
Passive- O + was/ were +V₃+ by + S
Interrogative
Active- did + S + V₁ + O?
Passive- was/were + O + V₃+by + S?

Examples

I read the book. – Active
The book was read by me. – Passive
Did you write a letter? – Active
Was a letter written by you? – Passive

(b) Past Continuous

Active- S + was/ were + V₁ing + O
Passive- O + was/ were + being + V₃ + by + S

Interrogative:

Active- was/ were + S + V₁ing + O?
Passive- was/ were + 0 + being + V₃ + by + S?

Examples

They were playing football. – Active
Football was being played by them. – Passive
Was he reading the newspaper? – Active
Was the newspaper being read by him’? – Passive

(c) Past Perfect

Active- S + had + V₃ + by + S
Passive- O + had + been + V₃+ by +S

Interrogative

Active- had + S + V₃ + O?
Passive- had + O + been + V₃ + by + S?

Example

I had read the book. – Active
The book had been read by me. – Passive
Had she bought new book? – Active
Had new book been bought by her? – Passive

III. Future Tense

(a) Future Indefinite : Assertive sentence For transforming an active voice sentence under this tense into passive voice, the verb is used in its third form and be is inserted between will and the verb.

The formula for this point will be
Active- S + will/ shall + V₁ + O
Passive- O + will/ shall + be + V₃ + by + S

Interrogative

Active: will/ shall + S + V₁ + O?
Passive: will/ shall + O + be + V₃ + by + S?

Example

I will write a book. – Active
A book will be written by me. – Passive
Will they wash clothes in the evening? – Active
Will clothes be washed by them in the evening? – Passive

In the case of an interrogative sentence, the change is the same for the active as for the passive, i.e. will is placed before the subject.

Example

Will I write a book? – Active
Will a book be written by me? – Passive

(b) Future Perfect

In the passive voice, under this tense been is inserted between have and the verb.

Active: S + will/ shall + have + V₃ + O
Passive: O + will/ shall + have + been + V₃ + by + S

Example

I will have written a book. – Active
A book will have been written by me. – Passive
Interrogatives are obtained only by putting will shall before the subject.

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