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UPSC IAS Mains History Optional Solved Exam Paper - 2009

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:: Paper - I ::

Section A

Q1. Marks the following places on the maps supplied to you and write short descriptive notes on these places marked by you.

1. Koldihwa 2. Kuchai
3. Utnur 4. Balathal
5. Hallur 6. Kandahar
7. Ter 8. Uchh
9. Uttaramerur 10. Sittanavasal
11. Mansura 12. Jaunpur
13. Machilipatnam 14. Mahisadal
15. Patne 16. Bagasra
17. Semthan 18. Gyaraspur
19. Lalkot 20. Daojali Hading

Answer.

Koldihwa-Neolithic archaeological site in Uttar Pradesh state of northern India dated between 4000-12011 BC. Koldihwa was an agricultural village of circular huts, with stone axes, bone and stone tools. pottery, and cattle pens: and early evidence of rice cultivation. found as impressions in ceramic vessels.

2. Kuchai: Kuchai is a pre-historic site situated at a distance of 8 km north of Baripad. Orissa Excavations at Kuchai yielded some Neolithic possessions of man. Potteries found here indicate the development of Mierolithic culture of the late Stone Age in this area.

3. Utnur: Utnur is a village and a Mandal in Adilabad district in the state of Andhra Pradesh in India where ashmound of Neolithic age has been found. This ashmound, famous on account of its excavations by Raymond and Bridget Allchin in the late 1950s. which found a cattle pen enclosure beneath the ashmound which had been repeatedly rebuilt on the same alignment after conflagrations.

4. Balathal: Balathal is a later Harappan site belonging to Ahar and Gilund culture and dates back to the period of 2500 BC onwards. In Balathal, the 2,500 B.C. fortification phase reveals a succession of stone structures inside the fortification and below the wall that ran around the residential ci..-iplex. There are high­built stone platforms on the eastern edge. This implies that people knew of stone architecture when the settlement began around 3,500 B.C

5. Hallur: Hallur is an archaeological site located in the Haveri district in the state of Karnataka. Hallur. South India’s earliest Iron Age site is located on the banks of the river Tungabhadra. The site was first discovered by Nagaraja Rao in 1962, and excavated in 1965. The excavations atHallur by Nagaraja Rao revealed two periods of occupation. Period 1: Neolithic­Chalcolithic and Period 11: An overlapping period between Neolithic-Chalcolithic and early Iron Age.

6. Kandahar: Kandahar takes its name from Gandhara. a kingdom of ancient India. Gandhara is mentioned in the Mahabharata. The city of Kandahar was founded in the 4th century BC by Alexander the Great, near the site of the ancient city of Mundigak (established around 3000 BC). It was ruled by the Indian emperors Ashoka and Kanishka. Later, it was conquered by the Islamic invaders and remained under control of non-Indians. Presently it is located in Afghanistan.

7. Ter: Ancient city of Tagara, now called Ter or Thair, which lies 16 km NNE of Osmanabad. Ter was well known for the cane-glass beads during Satavahana age. It was a famous city for commerce and centre of trade between India and western world. It was an important city and the trade route to the west.

8. Uchh: With the presence of Muslim culture in the region in the Ghaznavid period. Uchh was established as center of Persian literature. Abu al-Faraj Rum and Masud Sad were the two earliest major Indo-Persian poets based in Uchh. Presently this place is in Pakistan.

9. Uttaramerur: Uttaramerur a town near Chengalpattu in Tamil Nadu is bestowed with historic riches. It was created as a chaturvedhi mangalam by Parameswara alias Nandhivarman II. The original name was Uttarameru chaturvedhi mangalam as the name of the king was uttarameru. It was a village predominantly vaishnasite and the whole town was laid as per the vaikanasa aagama. Uttaramerur was studded with temples in the past. It is best known for its Kudavolai inscription.

10. Sittanavasal: Sittanavasal is a 6th Century AD rock-cut temple complex in Pudukottai district of Tamil Nadu. This site has an ancient monastery of the lain thirthankaras. The monastery has paintings and frescoes on its walls and ceiling. Many of them are typical of the 9th century Pandyan period and include exquisitely detailed pictures of animals, fish, ducks, people gathering lotuses from a pond and two dancing figures. There are also inscriptions dating back to the 9th and 101" centuries.

11. Mansura: The famous city of Mattsura was founded during the reign of Mansur (754-775 AD) the second Khalifa of the Abbasid dynasty. Khalifa Harun­al-Rashid (786-809 AD) was able to extend the frontiers of Sindh on its western side. Ruins of Mansura, the medieval Arab capital of Sindh (I I kin south east of Shahdadpur) testify to the grandeur of the city and the development of urban life during this period.

12. Jaunpur: The Jaunpur sultanate was an independent kingdom of northern India between 1394 CE to 1479 CE, whose rulers ruled from Jaunpur in the present day state of Uttar Pradesh. Jaunpur was known as Shiraz of India during this period. Mostt notable examples of Sharqi style of architecture in Jaunpur are the Atala Masjid, the Lal Darwaja Masjid and the Jami Masjid.

13. Machilipatnam: Machilipatnam is a city and a special grade municipality in the Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh. The town has existed since the 3rd century. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea calls it Masalia in the 1st century CE. The port is located on the southeastern, or Coromandel Coast, of India. Situated in the mouth of the River Krishna on the Bay of Bengal, the Masula port saw flourishing sea trade.

14. Mahisadal: Mahisadal is a chalcolithic site in the Bi ihum district in West Bengal. Several tools and weapons of stone have been found at this site. The remains of this site show that people were living in the houses made of ntud and bricks. Weapons and bangles of copper belonging to chalcolithic age have also been found here.

15. Patne: Pane is a place in Maharashtra where a collection of tools has been found. These tools date back to upper Paleolithic phase of Stone Age. The tools found at Patne suggest that till that time people were hunter-gatherer. This site represents the Nevasa culture which flourished in Maharashtra during the Stone Age.

16. Bagasra: Bagasra is a chacolithic site in the state of Gujarat. Excavations at Bagasra took place in the year 1997-98 under the guidance of P. Ajitprasad. Traces of a mature phase of Harappan civilization have heen found in Bagasra. Remains of residential have been noticed at this site.

17. Semthan: Sctnthan represents the prehistoric period of Kashmir. Archaeological excavations at this site have revealed many facts related to ancient and medieval periods. Excavations have shown different phases of development. In the first period. some snake­umbrella plates, flower vases and earthen-pots for cooking rice, etc. were found which were without the upper necks.

18. Gyaraspur: 41 kin north-east of Sanchi, Gyaraspur was a place of considerable importance in the medieval period. Here, in the ruins called Athakhambe (eight pillars) and Chaukhambe (four pillars) are what remain of the columned halls of two temples belonging to the 9th and 10th centuries AD. The town’s name is derived from the big fair which used to be held here in the 11 th month, sometimes known as Gyaras.

19. Lalkot: Led Kot, built, by the Tontar was renamed Qila Rai Pithora after Prithvi Raj Chauhan. It was a thirteen-gated fort in Delhi. Prithviraj. A Chauhan king, was the second last Hindu king of Delhi.

20. Daojali Hading: Daojali Hading is the oldest excavated site. This is a neolithic site. Ground and polished stone tools and simple pottery were found here. Many stone tools of the Palaeolithic age have also been found.

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Q2. In what ways are the accounts of the Graeco Romans and the Chinese helpful in reconstructing the social history of India? How far is their information corroborated by other Contemporary sources?

Answer:

Most stunning accounts of ancient India have been provided by the visiting foreigners. The Greeks who accompanied Alexander the Great in his Indian campaign recorded their encounters of this mystical, magical land. Although much of these works are now lost, the details have percolated into subsequent Greek literature. Special reference can be made of the Indica by Megasthenes who lived in the court of Chandragupta Maurya, of Periplus of the Erythrean Sea by an unknown businessman (second half of 1st century A.D) and The Geography of India by Ptolemy (about 130 A.D.) After the spread of Buddhism, Chinese travelers came to India in big numbers to collect religious books and to visit the holy places of Buddhism. Works of Fa-Hien (5th century A.D), Hewn-Tsang (7th century A.D.) and I-Tsing (7th century A.D.) are important historical accounts. The foreign accounts, while lacking native understanding of the complex culture of ancient Indians, do provide valuable objective documentation as also confirm some of the glories claimed in Indian inscriptions.

The Smritis and accounts of Fa-Hien are the chief sources of knowledge about the social life of the Guptas. Fa-Hien had stayed in India for a long period of 9 years, from 401 to 410 A.D. and visited various places of north India, including Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Bengal. He had spent several years in Pataliputra and Tamralipta. Therefore he could have had a firsthand knowledge of the social life of the Guptas. According to his accounts, people were very happy during the period of the Guptas and were free to move anywhere. Since public morality was very high during that time, therefore criminal law was lenient. People were mainly vegetarian and did not even eat onion or garlic. The habit of drinking wine among people was rare. Only the Chandalas and the sweepers drank wine and ate meat. However, they lived outside the towns and villages.

The representation of society as described by Fa-Hien depicts that town-dwellers lived a comfortable life and enjoyed a good standard of living. People living in the outskirts, like the Chandalas, were not so well of. Villagers lived on the production of their own cultivations and products manufactured by their artisans. “Kamasutra” indicates the comfortable life of the well-to-do citizens of towns. “Kamasutra” depicts the refinement and leisure of city life. It is presumed by historians that the city people beguiled themselves with poetry, writing and painting. Gatherings were held where poetry was recited and dancing performances were held. Youth of upper classes played the lute and practiced singing and even received training in the art of love, as Kamasutra testifies. Joint-family system was actually the general rule of family life. The head of the family governed the family unit. But Smritis also dictates the partition of family and familial properties.

The male members dominated the family and society. Though women were subordinate to men in society, yet their position was no less significant.

Women in Gupta society were idealized in literature. Basham has pointed out that ancient literature presented contradictory attitude towards women. While women were respected as anchors of the family, at the same time were mother of children and the friend of husband, a living goddess.

Dandin in “Dashakumara-charita” had proposed disparaging remarks about women in a class. He had described them as quarrelsome and disgusting. Education was permitted in a limited way to the upper class women in Gupta civilization. They not only participated in public life, but there is also reference to women teachers. There are instances also that those women used to take part in governmental and administrative functions. Much of the foreign sources on India, namely the travelogues of explorers have been assembled through second hand information and it is difficult to differentiate realities from hearsay. Megasthnes talks about seven classes in the Indian society. He also mentions that there was no slave system in India. But actually being a foreigner he could not understand the social structure and stratification of Indian society. During that time slave system was prevalent in India but it was completely different from that of Europe. In fact slaves in India had rather more freedom in comparison to their counterparts in Greece.

Q3. (a) Evaluate the various approaches to the understanding of Vedic religion.

Answer:

The four Vedas; Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva Vedas are seen as Sruti, “heard,” as Revelation and “not human-originated”. Human beings, wise and holy sages, seers and prophets were the human channels of the revealed wisdom. They “heard” in their hearts the eternal messages and “saw” and symbolized various names and forms of the One, Sacred, Ultimate Reality, Truth, and God from different perspectives and contexts. The Hindu gods and goddesses, worshipped with different names and forms and qualities are, in reality, many aspects, powers, functions, and symbols of the only one all pervasive Supreme Being, without a second. The Upanishads, later portions in the Vedas, teach that salvation/liberation is achieved in an experiential way and that oneness with the supreme Reality, Brahman, is possible; the supreme goal. Brahman, is also the One Self, the higher self found in all.

There are several hymns in the Vedas and other scriptures which categorically declare that there are different approaches and perspectives to God and experience of God and ultimate reality. This also arises, necessarily, from different human contexts. The central teaching, constantly repeated, is: God is one, but names and forms are many; symbols and paths are many. Thus, there arose a rich theological and philosophical pluralism within Hinduism creating an internal “parliament of sub-traditions and sub­religions,” but all grounded in the unity of the Vedas and One Brahman. Also, multiplicity is encouraged and thrives by means of the free choice and self-determined identification with one specially loved manifestation of God, Shiva, Krishna, Shakti, Rama, and so on, in pursuing the moral and spiritual path to salvation/ liberation. Because people are at different starting points and stations, Hindu scriptures affirm and accept variety in religious experiences as a necessity and psychological reality.

Multiplicity brings with it differences, which one cannot destroy or do away with, Yet, the deep commonalities in structures of religious experience and in the profound moral values found in all religions are to be constantly probed and appropriated for the development of a deeper spiritual and human solidarity and fellowship, transcending the cultural and other barriers.

Q3 (b). Give an account of the use of gold coins by commoners in the Gupta Period. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)

Q4. Bring out the regional variations in the early South Indian Templets architectural styles. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)

Section B

Q5. Write short essays the following:

(a) Applicability of the term Radian Feudatismi to early Medieval Society.

Answer:

The post-classical period in India is usually looked at from the perspective of the political aftermath of the Muslim invasions and not as a situation which developed out of a continuous historical process. Early medieval period was the time when feudalism had taken its firm roots in Indian society at least in terms of economic relationships.

The social structure encompassed local lords with pre-eminent social and political status in the area. The key figures of early medieval India were thus various groups of samantas, mahasamantas, mandalesvaras, mahamandalesvaras. rajakulas. rajaputras. These all were basically landed magnates but known by various regional expressions. The relationship between them and the heads of numerous royal families was perhaps variously defined and the system of court hierarchy in a kingdom was determined by the nature of this relationship. Such a situation fostered military adventurism which is reflected in the continuous formation of ruling dynasties. This process is tacitly admitted in contemporary political theory in which the concept of king received a flexible definition.

Some of the early medieval kingdoms were located in the perennial centres of power: others arose in relatively isolated zones and marked the beginning of new social processes in those areas. As in the earlier periods, these dynasties and kingdoms too desired legitimization within a Brahmanical framework. The political elites were thus dependent on the priestly class and such existing institutions as temples for securing effective grip over the areas they ruled. The brahmadeyas or predominantly Brahman villages were distributed throughout their territorial units, and deliberations of systematically constituted assemblies in such villages, consisting only of Brahman members, show that religious pursuits were not their only concern. The other category of grants, the devadanas, made the temple a focal point of activities not only in rurall areas but, in some cases, in urban areas as well. Thus post-classical period represents a major structural change in Indian society. The economy was ruralized, and the vast number of assignments, resulting in the development of landed intermediaries, introduced feudal characteristics in it.

Trade declined, urban centres fell into decay, and the old manufacturing guilds came to be reduced to the insignificant position of low sub-castes. The impressions that the sources give are those of a predominantly rural society organized in such a way as to yield the maximum quantum of revenue to the state. Trading activities had a comparatively subservient role in this political structure. Moreover, the emergence of regions was not merely a political process; it had several cultural facets as well. The formation of castes was the result of acculturation and occupational changes, and an analysis of this process alone can provide an index of the cultural dynamics of the area. The same dynamics may be located in the chronological stages of the growth of regional languages. Sanskrit continued the official language, but what was typicall of a region found the language of the area to be its best vehicle. This urge went to the extent of even regionalizing the epics.

Q5 (b). Muhammad Tughluq as an agrarian innovator.

Answer:

Among sultans of Delhi Saltanate Muhammad Tughlaq was most controversial. In fact he was a well read person and used to believe in new ideas and experimentations. He had new visions and he wanted to implement them to benefit his kingdom. The experiment undertaken by him in the field of agriculture was one such step which failed him though he started some new trends which bore fruit in later times. In 1329-30 Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced a token currency. There was a shortage of silver throughout the world in the fourteenth century. Kublai Khan issued paper money in China. In the same manner, Muhammad bin Tughlaq issued copper coins at par with the value of the silver tanka coins. But he was not able to prevent forging the new coins. The goldsmiths began to forge the token coins on a large scale. Soon the new coins were not accepted in the markets.

Finally, Muhammad bin Tughlaq stopped the circulation of token currency and promised to exchange ‘ silver coins for the copper coins. Many people exchanged the new coins but the treasury became empty. The failure of the experiments affected the prestige of the Sultan and enormous money was wasted. In order to overcome financial difficulties, Muhammad bin Tughlaq increased the land revenue on the farmers of Doab (land between Ganges and Yamuna rivers). It was an excessive and arbitrary step on the farmers. A severe famine was also ravaging that region at that time. It had resulted in a serious peasant revolts. However, the Sultan realized later that adequate relief measures and the promotion of agriculture were the real solution to the problem. He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for cultivation) were given to the farmers to buy seed and to extend cultivation. A separate department for agriculture, Diwan- i- Kohi was established. Model farm under the state was created in an area of 64 square miles for which the government spent seventy lakh tankas. It was a kind of modern style of farming in which he invested a lot though finally this experiment also failed him. But he set a good precedent of experimenting with agriculture and cash cropping.

Q5 (c). Implications of Akbaris notion of Sulh-i-kul.  (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)

Q5 (d). Estimates of population of Mughal India. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)

6. (a) How far can the village assemblies or communities under the Cholas be really called democratic. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)

Q6 (b). Assess Kalhanas views on History. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)

8. (a) Give a critical assessment of the contributions of Amir Khusarau and Barani to Indo Persian Literature.

Answer:

Whether Khusrau composed any poetry in Hindi or not, and whether the riddles and other dohas ascribed to him are his or not, is a debate that may have begun in nineteenth century when scholars started collecting and compiling Khusrau’s poetry. So far no authentic document containing Khusrau’s Hindvi poetry has been found which would date back to earlier than 18th century AD, unlike those containing his Persian works which are as old as 500 years or even older. Though Khusrau himself has mentioned at many places in his Persian books that he loves writing in Hindvi and has dispensed with such works (of Hindvi poetry) amongst his friends, he himself probably didn’t bother to preserve them in any written form. One of the most prolific genres that Amir Khusrau is ascribed to have composed is Paheli (riddle). Pahelis are short pieces of verse with usually two or four lines in rhyme, using an array of, similes, analogies and other symbols in a clever, tongue-and-cheek play of words to conceal their meanings or answer.

Amir Khusrau who had a special attachment with the common folk and their language of expression, may have started using this genre in his playful interaction with the people. In the present version of his riddles he seems to have toyed with words of Braj, Haryanvi and Khadi boli, blended a few phrases of Persian with some expressions of Sanskrit. Some of his works include Tuhfa-tus-Sighr (Offering of a Minor) his first divan. Wastul-Hayat (The Middle of Life) his second divan containing poems composed at the peak of his poetic career, Ghurratul-Kamaal (The Prime of Perfection) poems composed between the age of 34 and 43 Baqia-Naqia (The Rest/The Miscellany) compiled at the age of 64, Qissa Chahar Darvesh, Nihayatul-Kamaal and Qiran-us-Sa’dain.

Ziauddin Barani was an Muslim historian and political thinker who lived in India during Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firuz Shah’s reign. He was best known for composing the Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, a major historical work on medieval India, which covers the period from the reign of Ghiyas uddin Balban to the first six years of reign of Firuz Shah Tughluq and the Fatwa-i-Jahandari which details the Muslim Caste System in South Asia. The Fatwa-i-Jahandari is a work containing the political ideals to he pursued by a Muslim ruler in order to earn religious merit and the gratitude of his subjects. The Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi was an interpretation of the history of the Delhi Sultanate up to the then-present Firuz Shah Tughlaq. His other works in Persian are Salvat-i-Kabir, Sana­i-Muhammadi, Hasratnama and Inayatnama.

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Q8 (b). The major cause of revolts against the Mughal Empire during the latter half of the 17th century were economic , rather than religious. Discuss.

Ans: Many subjects rebelled against Aurangzeb’s policies, among them his own son, Prince Akbar. In 1667, the Yusufzai Pashtuns and in 1669, the Jars around Mathura revolted. In 1672, the Satnami, a sect concentrated in an area near Delhi, under the leadership of Bhirbhan and some Satnami, took over the administration of Narnaul, but they were eventually crushed upon Aurangzeb’s personal intervention with very few escaping alive. Soon afterwards the Atridi Pashtuns in the north­west also revolted, and Aurangzeb was forced to lead his army personally to Hasan Abdal to subdue them.

The Ahoms (the people of Shan community of Burma or Myanmar) were the kings who had established their kingdom in the basin of river Bramhaputra and made it impossible for the Mughals to conquer that area. The role of the economic factor was the leading factor of these rebellions. Emperor assigned a certain piece of land to the officials in lieu of their pay and also to enable them to defray the expenses over their troops on condition of their paying a sum to the Emperor out of the surplus revenue. Such grants were called Jagirs. Since they were mainly grants of revenue out of which the holders (Who were usually Mansabdars) maintained their quota of troops for the Empire, the tendency was to fix revenue at the highest possible rate almost equal to the surplus produce. Even this high rate went on increasing with the passage of time.

Under the circumstances the peasants were financially hit very hard. They were usually left with the barest minimum needed for supporting their lives. What added further to the hardships of the cultivators was the frequent transfer of the jagirs to different assignees. The jagirdars held their jagirs at the pleasure of the Emperor. This constant insecurity of the tenure of office proved unfortunate in two ways. Firstly it offered little incentive to the holders to exert for alleviating the distress of their tenancy. Instead it led them to employ all possible tactics to extort money from the Peasantry. Secondly, quite often at the time of the transfer the hard hit peasants of the same Jagir were pressurized to pay the same sum twice, first to the collectors of the outgoing jagirdar and then to those of the incoming one. Thus this system ended in a mad looting of the peasants by the rival collectors. If the peasants refused to pay the revenue, very severe punishment was meted out to them. At times they were left with no other option than to sell their women, children and cattle, or to run away from their home to avoid extermination through-ill­ treatment.

:: Paper - II ::

Q1. Comment on the following statements:

(a) Though the Permanent Settlement had serious defects, it gave tranquility to the countryside and stability to the governments.

Answer:

The most famous measure of Lord Cornwallis was the Permanent Settlement of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, concluded in 1793, when the then existing assessment of land revenue, which had been made for ten years, was declared to be perpetual. Two years later the same supposed boon was conferred upon Banaras carried out by Lord Cornwallis against the advice. but with the help, of his most esteemed councillor, Sir John Shore. The question of incentives now being understood to be central, the security of tenure of landlords was guaranteed: in short, the former landholders and revenue intermediaries were granted effective ownership to the land they held. In addition, the land tax was fixed in perpetuity, so as to minimise the tendency by British administrators to amass a small fortune in sluiced-away revenue.

Smallholders were no longer permitted to sell their land, though they could not be expropriated by their new landlords. Incentives to zamindars in this case was intended to encourage improvements of the land, such as drainage, irrigation and the construction of roads and bridges; such infrastructure had been insufficient through out it Bengal. With a fixed land tax, zamindars could securely invest in increasing their income without any fear of having the increase taxed away by the Company. Cornwallis made this motivation quite clear, declaring that when the demand of government is fixed, an opportunity is afforded to the landholder of increasing his profits, by the improvement of his lands.

The immediate consequence of the Permanent Settlement was both very sudden and dramatic, and one which nobody had apparently foreseen. By ensuring that zamindars’ lands were held in perpetuity and with a fixed tax burden, they became desirable commodities. In addition, the government tax demand was inflexible and the British East India Company’s collectors refused to make allowances for times of drought, flood or other natural disaster. The tax demand was higher than that in England at the time. As a result, many zamindars immediately fell into arrears.

The Company’s policy of auction of any zamindari lands deemed to be in arrears created a market for land which previously did not exist. Many of the new purchasers of this land were Indian officials within the East India Company’s government. These bureaucrats were ideally placed to purchase lands which they knew to be under assessed, and therefore profitable. In addition, their position as officials gave them opportunity to quickly acquire the wealth necessary to purchase land through bribery and corruption. They could also manipulate the system to bring to sale land that they specifically wanted. Historian Bernhard Cohn and others have argued that the Permanent Settlement led firstly to a commercialization of land which previously did not exist in Bengal. And secondly, as a consequence of this, it led to a change in the social background of the ruling class from ‘ lineages and local chiefs” to “under civil servants and their descendants, and to merchants and bankers. The new landlords were different in their outlook; often they were absentee landlords who managed their land through managers and who had little attachment to their land.

Q1 (b). The Arya Samaj may quite logically be pronounced as the outcomes of conditions imported into India by the west (Lala Lajpat Rai)

Answer:

The Arya Samaj was undoubtedly the most dynamic socio-religious reform movement modern society has ever seen. Though the Arya Samaj was primarily concerned with social and religious reforms, its political impact was most conspicuous. The ideal of that society, as proclaimed by its founder is an absolutely free and independent form of nation. Swami Dayanand and the powerful organization he initiated, the Arya Samaj clearly unquestionably were the most potent factors in reforming, rejuvenating and rebuilding the institutions of India’s political emancipation. India tinder British rule was being exploited both economically and culturally. But people were still ignorant of the reality. They were divided due to prevalaence of the dogmatism and a number of social inhibitions.

The education imposed on India was also not up to the mark. It was intended to serve the interest of the Bristishers. In this condition social reforms were the need of the hour. In 1875, for the first time in the history of modern India. Swami Dayanand made a forceful plea for India’s political independence, “Say what you will and self-government is by far the best.” A foreign government perfectly free from religious prejudices, impartial towards all the natives and foreigners - kind, beneficial and just though it may he can never render the people perfectly happy. Swami Dayanand was the first to rise against British dominion, the first Indian to use the word Swaraj, self-government. With unerring instinct Swami Dayanand hit upon the psychological factors which were bound to bring about the fall of a ruling power. He was shrewd enough to hint merely at the eventuality of the loss of power by the British, without directly mentioning them by names.

Q1 (c). Please remember, in granting separate electorates we are sowing the dragonsis teeth and harvest will be bitter. (Morley) (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)

Q1 (d). The annexation of Awadh shook the loyalty of the Sepoys, as it was for them an ultimate proof of untrustworthiness of the British. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)

2. (a) Why Mysore was considered a threat by the British to their possessions and mercantile interests in the south? Do you think that Tipu Sultanis posturing became his undoing?

Answer:

East India Company had both strategic and commercial interest in Mysore province. Front commercial point of view the Karnataka region was important for export and import. There were some important ports located in the province of Mysore.

Firstly with the capture and annexation of Mysore would give East India Company an added advantage in the trade. Secondly. the Mysore plain was also very fertile and it would have been very good source of revenue for the company administration. In addition to it. Mysore had become a formidable state under Haider and Tipu. They had posed a great challenge to the British power. Tipu was very ambitious and lie had taken several measures to modernize his army. He had good relationship with France, the old enemy of British power. Tipu Sultan was the innovator of the world’s first war rocket. Two of these rockets, captured by the British at Srirangapatna. are displayed in the Royal Artillery Museum in London. Most of Tippu Sultan’s campaigns resulted in successes. He managed to subdue all the petty kingdoms in the south. He defeated the Marathas and the Nizams and was also one of the few Indian rulers to have defeated British armies. In alliance with the French in their struggle with the British both Tipu Sultan and Haider Ali did not hesitate to use their French trained army against the Marathas, Sira, Malabar. Coorg and Bcdnur. Tipu fought against East India Company bravely unto the last. But he could not get the support of any other regional powers against Company’s forces. But the posture he took was brilliant and what he did was ahead of his time.

Q2 (b). How did the East India Company became the dejure power in India?

Answer:

The British with their superior naval power support from home were the next who like the numerous invaders and adventurers of the past would establish their dominion in India. The diplomatic moves of East India Company were clever. The favourable conditions created by the disintegration of the Mughal Empire invited the English to seek political power in India. The political aspirations of the Company bore fruit from Bengal. Owing to the incompetence of Siraj-ud daula the Nawab of Bengal. he had lost the loyalty of his nobles who conspired against him. The misuse of the privileges given to the English and the fortification of the settlement invoked the displeasure of the Nawab who ordered their demolition. The inhuman act of the Nawabs subordinate resulting in the Black hole tragedy resulted in involvement of Robert Clive and Admiral Watson in an attempt to subdue the Nawab. After the capture of Calcutta by Robert Clive he entered into a treaty which proved the only advantageous solution for both at present. The diplomatic designs of Clive bore fruit when he learnt of the discontented nobles of the Nawabs who were ready to go against the authority of the Nawab .

On the 23rd of the June 1757 the antics of the Nawab Siraj-ud-daula and Robert Clive met in a battle at Plassey. The Nawab’s nobles who deflected as decided with the English did not support the Nawab, leading to his defeat. This was the major achievement of the English that was to act as the foundation of British rule in India. It also started a political gamble by the Company officials who now conspired against Mir Jafar and promised the throne to Mir gasim in return for money.

Mir jafar was disposed by the English and Mir gasim was given the administration of Bengal. His quarrels with the Company over duties and articles and trade exposed his intention to break off from the yoke of British dominance.

This ultimately resulted in the battle of Buxar in 1764. A fierce battle resulted. The superior military power of the English had confirmed the English victory and thus they became the masters of Bengal and now were the sole contenders for the control of the whole country. Later when Warren Hastings became the Governor General of India, he took direct control of administration which culminated in 1803 when Mughal Emperor was finally deposed and East India Company became the dejure power in India.

3. (a) How did social legislation in the nineteenth century improve the condition of women in India?

Answer:

With the beginning of the social reform movement in 18th and 19th century in India the British government had to rethink its policies concerning Indian society. Child marriage, female child infanticide suicide by widows and illiteracy among women were the main social problems in India. It had divided the society and stalled the process of development in the country. The first step towards social legislation was taken by William Bentinck. He brought a law in 1929 by which sari piatha was declared illegal. Though the law could be implemented in its full scale but at least it created some kind of awareness that this practice of committing suicide by widow women was inhuman and it should be prevented at any cost. Hence it helped to reduce the number of such incidents. In 1795 and again in 1803 infanticide was made illegal by John Shore and Wellesley. This practice was prevalent among the Rajput community.

With the ban on this practice infanticide disappeared gradually. Again child marriage was also a common affair at that time. Many of them had to live their life in isolation in case of their husband’s death. Ishwar Chard Vidyasagar started a campaign for widow remarriage and in this campaign Raja Rain Mohan Roy also vehemently supported him. Their effort bore fruit and in 1956 widow remarriage act was passed which allowed remarriage of a widow. Though its practical implications were negligible but it made any such act legal and thus tried to change the old prevailing dogmatic notion. In 1929 Sharda Act was passed which made child marriage illegal. In 1872 inter-caste marriage was also made legal. All these laws served as an eye opener and prepared a ground for the women emancipation though on implementation level there were few examples when people were ready to accept them in their daily lives.

Q3 (b). Analyze the social composition of the early Congress leadership.

Answer:

Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. Its founding members belonged to educated middle class. They had got English education and had firm faith in British providence. They warned to improve the condition of Indian people under the guidance of British benevolence. They had no mass support. They wanted to keep their movement restricted to upper middle class as they were of opinion that people in general were not educated enough to understand the basic need of the hour. Its founding members proposed economic reforms and wanted a larger role in the making of British policy for India. By 1907, however. the Congress had split into a moderate group led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale . who sought dominion status for India, and a militant faction under Bal Gangadhar Tilak , who demanded self-rule. Early Congressmen who dominated the affairs of the Indian National Congress from 1885 to 19115 were known as the Moderates. They belonged to a class which was Indian in blood and colour but British in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect. They were supporters of British institutions. They believed that what India needed was a balanced and lucid presentation of her needs before the Englishmen and their Parliament. They had faith in the British sense of justice. The Moderates believed in orderly progress and constitutional agitation. They believed in patience, steadiness, conciliation and union.

The Moderates believed in constitutional agitation within the four corners of law. They believed that their main task was to educate the people, to arouse national political consciousness and to create a united public opinion on political questions. For this purpose they held meetings. They criticized the Government through the press. They drafted and submitted memorials and petitions to the Government. to the officials of the Government of India and also to the British Parliament. They also worked to influence the British Pa.liantent and British public opinion. The object of the memorials and petitions was to enlighten the British public and political leaders about the conditions prevailing in India. Deligations of leading Indian leaders were sent to Britain in 1889. The basic weakness of the Moderates lay in their narrow social base. Their movement did not have a wide appeal. The area of their influence was limited to the urban community. As they did not have the support of the masses. they declared that the time was not ripe for throwing out a challenge to the foreign rulers.

4. (a) Discuss as to why the Congress accepted the partition of India in 1947.

Answer:

The Congress was not consistent on the Partition. On April 2, 1942, the Congress Working Committee criticized the secessionist idea. But at the same time Congress committee said that it cannot think in terms of compelling the people of any territorial unit to remain in the Indian Union against their declared and established will. Its election manifesto of 1945 reiterated this principle, thus setting at naught the Jagat Narain Lal resolution, adopted by the All India Congress Committee (AICC) on May 2, 1942, which ruled out liberty to any component State or territorial unit to secede. Rajaji’s formula, in March 1944, accepted plebiscite on Partition in areas where in the Muslim population is in absolute majority. On September 24, 1944 Gandhi himself offered Jiunah his plan for “two sovereign independent States” with a Treaty of Separation on defense, foreign affairs, etc. Thus, from 1940 onwards, the trend was unmistakably against India’s unity. Both Gandhi and the Congress had accepted the principle of Partition, based on consent of the areas concerned. Time was fast running out on India’s unity.

The British government’s statement on December 6,1946 rejected the Congress interpretation of the grouping formula and expressed its view that here has never been any prospect of success for the Constituent Assembly except upon the basis of the agreed procedure. Should a Constitution come to be framed by the Constituent Assembly in which a large section-of the Indian population had not been represented, His Majesty’s Government could not, of course, contemplate as the Congress have stated they would not contemplate forcing such a Constitution upon any unwilling parts of thee country. This gave the Congress one of two choices - unqualified acceptance of the Cabinet Mission’s Plan or Partition. It preferred the latter. Once again, Gandhi rejected the Plan. But the direct action day observed by Muslim league and the following incidents of Hindu-Muslim riot made Congress believe that partition was the only option if otherwise there could be lasting peace even if British leave India. And so Congress accepted the partition.

Q4 (b). Do you think that Quit India movement was a Spontaneous Revolution?

Answer:

After civil Disobedience Movement no mass movement was led against British rule in India. Even this movement had to be called off half way not most of the sections of India and within Congress itself were not satisfied with the gains they could get so far. There was a great resentment among public and it was just a matter of time when they would raise against the foreigners. They got this opportunity during world war second, In 1939, with the outbreak of war between Germany and Britain, India was announced to be a party to the war for being a constituent component of the British Empire. Following this declaration, the Congress Working Committee at its meeting on 10th October, 1939, passed a resolution condemning the aggressive activities of the Germans. At the same time the resolution also stated that India could not associate herself with war as it was against Fascism. There was hardly any difference between British colonialism and Nazi totalitarianism.

In the meanwhile, crucial political events took place in England. In the context of widespread dissatisfaction that prevailed over the rejection of the demands made by the Congress, Gandhi at the meeting of the Congress Working Committee in Wardha revealed his plan to launch Individual Civil Disobedience. In Europe the war situation became more critical with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the Congress realized the necessity for appraising their program. Subsequently, the movement was withdrawn.

The Cripps’ Mission and its failure also played an important role in Gandhi’s call for The Quit India Movement. In -order to end the deadlock, the British government on 22nd March, 1942, sent Sir Stafford Cripps to talk terms with the Indian political parties and secure their support in Britain’s war efforts. But it failed. Sir Stafford Cripps left the country amidst unprecedented excitement. In order to give effect to the Mahatma’s views, The Congress Working Committee adopted the well known ‘Quit India’ Resolution on July 14th 1942 at Wardha. The All India Congress Committee accepted this resolution with some modifications, on 8th August, 1942 in Bombay. The very next day, on 9th August, eminent Congress leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Vallabhbhai Patel, Jaeaharlal Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad were arrested. The masses were left without any guidance. Gandhi’s ‘do or die’ call for the people created an upheaval in the country. This ruined the atmosphere of non- violence in the country. Unlike the other two movements, the Non-Co-Operation and the Civil Disobedience Movement that unleashed under the aegis of Mahatma Gandhi, the Quit India Movement captures the quintessence of a ‘spontaneous’ rising by the people.

5. Comment on the following statements:
(a) The capitalism which gave the European empires their apparent solidarity and permanence also hastened their downfall. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)

Q5 (b). In all the long annals of Imperialism, the partition of Africa is a remarkable freak. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)

Q5 (c). Hitler did not really want a World War. His intention was only a short war with Polandi (A. J. P. Taylar) (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)

Q5 (d). Arab nationalism and oil n these were the principal factors in complicating the relations of Middle Eastern countries with the outside world. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)

6. (a) Discuss the emergence of neo-imperialism in the late nineteenth century.

Answer:

On adopted by Europe’s powers and, later, Japan and the United States, during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Expansion approximately took place from the Franco-Prussian War to World War I. The period is distinguished by an unprecedented pursuit of what has been termed “empire for empire’s sake,” aggressive competition for overseas territorial acquisitions and the emergence in some colonizing countries of doctrines of racial superiority which purported to explain the unfitness of backward peoples for self-government. The rise of the New Imperialism overlaps with the Pax Britannica period.

The American Revolution and the collapse of the Spanish empire in the New World in the early 1810-20s, following the revolutions in the viceroyalties of New Spain, New Granada, Peru and the Rio de la Plata ended the first era of European empire. The erosion of British hegemony after the Franco-Prussian War was occasioned by changes in the European and world economies and in the continental balance of power following the breakdown of the Concert of Europe, the balance of power established by the Congress of Vienna. The establishment of nation-states in Germany and Italy resolved territorial issues that had kept potential rivals embroiled in internal affairs at the heart of Europe (to Britain’s advantage).

Economically, adding to the commercial competition of old rivals like France were now the newly industrializing powers, such as Germany and the United States. Needing external markets for their manufactured goods, all sought ways to challenge Britain’s dominance in world trade the consequence of its early industrialization. This competition was sharpened by the Long Depression of 1873-1896, a prolonged period of price deflation punctuated by severe business downturns, which added to pressure on governments to promote home industry, leading to the widespread abandonment of free trade among Europe’s powers.

The resulting limitation of both domestic markets and export opportunities led government and business leaders in Europe, and later the U.S., to see the solution in sheltered overseas markets united to the home country behind imperial tariff barriers: new overseas colonies would provide export markets free of foreign competition, while supplying cheap raw materials. The revival of working-class militancy and emergence of socialist parties during the Depression decades led conservative governments to view colonialism as a force for national cohesion in support of the domestic status quo. Also, in Italy, and to a lesser extent in Germany and Britain, tropical empires in India and Burma were seen as outlets for what was deemed a surplus home population. These factors necessitated the second phase of imperialism.

Q6 (b). What was the extent of industrialization in Western Europe by the end of the nineteenth century?

Answer:

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Great Britain experienced a massive increase in agricultural productivity known as the British Agricultural Revolution, which enabled an unprecedented population growth, freeing a significant percentage of the workforce from farming, and helping to drive the Industrial Revolution. Due to the limited amount of arable land and the overwhelming efficiency of mechanized farming, the increased population could not be dedicated to agriculture. New agricultural techniques allowed a single peasant to feed more workers than previously: however, these techniques also increased the demand for machines and other hardware, which had traditionally been provided by the urban artisans. Artisans, collectively called bourgeoisie, employed rural exodus workers to increase their output and meet the country’s needs. The growth of their business coupled with the lack of experience of the new workers pushed a rationalization and standardization of the duties in workshops, thus leading to a division of labour. The process of creating a good was divided into simple tasks, each one of them being gradually mechanized in order to boost productivity and thus increase income. The accumulation of capital allowed investments in the conception and application of new technologies, enabling the industrialization process to continue to evolve.

The industrialization process formed a class of industrial workers who had more money to spend than their agricultural cousins. They spent this on items such as tobacco and sugar; creating new mass markets which stimulated more investment as merchants sought to exploit them. The mechanization of production spread to the countries surrounding England in western and northern Europe and to British settler colonies, helping to make those areas the wealthiest, and shaping what is now known as the Western world. It spread to Holland, France, Germany and France also. Some economic historians argue that the possession of so­called ‘exploitation colonies’ eased the accumulation of capital to the countries that possessed them, speeding up their development. The consequence was that the subject country integrated a bigger economic system in a subaltern position, emulating the countryside which demands manufactured goods and offers raw materials, while the metropolis stressed its urban posture, providing goods and importing food. A classical example of this mechanism is said to be the triangular trade, which involved England, southern United States and western Africa. Critics argue that this polarity still affects the world. and has deeply retarded the industrialization of what is now known as the Third World.

7. (a) How did Napoleon Bonaparte fuse the old France with the new?

Answer:

It was Napoleon’s function in history to fuse the old France with the new. Napoleon declared that he wanted to cement peace at home by anything that could bring the French together and provide tranquility within families. Like Mirabeau. Napoleon didn’t see an incompatibility between the Revolution and monarchy. Napoleon did what the Bourbon King could not do. He reconciled the elements of the monarchy with elements of the Revolution which was the failed goal of Mirabeau in 1790. Napoleon was largely successful in attracting men from all parties front ex-Jacobins to nobles, to his government. Signing the Concordat (15 July, 1801) allowed Napoleon to reconcile the religious differences which had torn France apart during the Revolution. At the same time, the Concordat insured religious freedom. It recognized Catholicism ass the religion of the majority of the French, but did not make it an “established” religion as the Church of England was in Britain. Protestants and Jews were allowed to practice their religion and retain their civic rights.

A general amnesty signed by Napoleon (26 April, 1802) allowed all but about one thousand of the most notorious emigrants to return to France. These two actions helped to bring relative tranquility to those areas of France which had long been at war with the Revolution. Albert Sobould has written that stabilizing society on the fundamental base of the Revolution. Napoleon integrated the returned emigrants into a new social hierarchy; and, while reinforcing the principle of authority, he merged these emigrants into a new order which at first had been constructed against them. Of the three key principles of the Revolution -liberty, equality, and fraternity, it was liberty which suffered most tinder Napoleon. The French desiring to safeguard what they had acquired during the R e volution. Many felt that guarantee could come only with the restoration and preservation of order. They were willing to sacrifice their liberties for that guarantee, for that order. In the absence of political liberty, he would assure Frenchmen of their individual rights. In the Napoleonic Code, he would sanctify equality, their dearest possession. He would keep most of the revolutionary institutions while at times amalgamating them with those of the Old Regime.

Q7 (b). Why did Vietnam go through thirty years of war after the Second World War?

Answer:

The Vietnam War was the legacy of France’s failure to suppress nationalist forces in Indochina as it struggled to restore its colonial dominion after World War II. Led by Ho Chi Minh, a Communist­dominated revolutionary movement waged a political and military struggle for Vietnamese independence that frustrated the efforts of the French and resulted ultimately in their ouster from the region. Vietnam had gained its independence from France in 1954. The country was divided into North and South. The North had a communist government led by Ho Chi Minh. The South had an anti-communist government led by Ngo Dinh Diem. The Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War in 1949 and Chinese intervention against the United Nations in Korea made U.S.-China policy a captive of Cold War politics. Those events also helped to transform American anti-colonialism to support for the French protectorates in Indochina, and later for their non-Communist successors. American political and military leaders viewed the Vietnam War as the Chinese doctrine of revolutionary warfare in action (using Chinese and Soviet arms, to boot). The overarching geopolitical aim behind the United States’ involvement in Vietnam was to contain the spread of communism in Southeast Asia.

To accomplish this aim, the United States supported an anti-communist regime known as the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) in its fight against a communist take-over. South Vietnam faced a serious, dual-tracked threat: a communist-led revolutionary insurgency within its own borders and the military power of its communist neighbor and rival, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam). Preventing South Vietnam from falling to the communists ultimately led the United States to fight a major regional war in Southeast Asia. The North Vietnamese regime, which received outside assistance from the communist great powers, the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China, proved a formidable adversary. The United States strategy generally proceeded from the premise that the essence of the problem in Vietnam was military, with efforts to “win the hearts and minds” of the South Vietnamese populace taking second place.

To frustrate North Vietnamese and Viet Cong efforts, and in part to contain China, the United States eventually fielded an army of over 500,000 men and engaged in extensive air and naval warfare against North Vietnam. The American military effort provoked stiff domestic and international opposition, led to strained civil-military relations at home, and called into question many of the assumptions that had dominated US foreign and military policy since 1945, but failed to compel the enemy to do its will.

8. (a) Account for the overthrow of the Tsarist regime in Russia. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)

Q8 (b). Examine the peace keeping efforts of the United Nations Organization. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)

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