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IGNOU HISTORY NOTES : Modern India - CONSOLIDATION OF THE RAJ : FRONTIER AND FOREIGN POLICY

IGNOU HISTORY Study Notes for IAS, UPSC Exams

Modern India 1857-1964

CONSOLIDATION OF THE RAJ : FRONTIER AND FOREIGN POLICY

Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 International Situation
6.2.1 British Supremacy in-the Sub-continent
6.2.2 The Decline of China
6.2.3 The nreat from Russia
6.2.4 Afghanistan
6.2.5 Second Afghan War
6.3 North West Frontier Policy
6.4 Persia and the Persian Gulf
6.5 Tibet
6.6 Nepal
6.7 Sikkim
6.8 Bhutan
6.9 North Eastern Frontier Agency (NEFA)
6.10 Let Us Sum Up
6.1 1 Key Words
6.12 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

6.0 Objectives

?'he policy adopted by the British to consolidate their rule in India included the establishment of a proper administrative system as well as securing the boundaries of the newly conquered territories. The latter aspect is called the foreign and frontier policy and it is often referred to as an imperialistic policy because it was formulated to serve world-wide British imperial interests. This Unit tries to analyse the basic components of Indian foreign policy.

After reading this Unit you will :

know what the international situation was during the period of our study,
know how the British established their supremacy in the sub-continent,
understand how they tried to overcome the Russian danger in Central Asia,
learn what methods the British Indian government adopted to bring the North-West under their control,
grasp the nature of British Indian relations with Tibet, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and come to know about Indian policy regarding Perisa and Persian Gulf as well as North-East Frontier Agency.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

By 1818 the British had conquered almost the whole of India except Punjab and Sindh and their annexation too was only a question of time. After completing the empire building process, the British followed a two-fold policy for the consolidation of the Raj, namely, the introduction of a suitable administrative system and making arrangements for ensuring security of the newly conquered territories. The latter effort constitutes the frontier and foreign policy. This, of course, excludes British relations with Indian states which were also regulated by the Foreign Department. The policy of defending British Indian territories is often described as "an imperialistic policy" for it was formulated in the perspective of world-wide British imperial interests. Here we are posed with a pertinent question: can we say that India before 1947 had an independent foreign policy of her own? To a certain extent it was so. We have the following arguments in support of this point:
i) The invasions of Afghanistan and Persia (Iran) and the plundering expeditions of the the frontier tribes which had been going on for a long time ended with the
consolidation of British rule in India.
ii) Being a big and strong component of the Empire India always had some weight in N.tiaullrm the formulation of British foreign policy.
iii) Because of distance between India and England, the British Government of India always had some discretion and a certain degree of initiative in the formulation of
foreign policy of India.
iv) Moreover, the British imperial interests in some spheres coincided with those of India, such as those involving Russia, Persia and China which gave a fillip to the
evolution of India's foreign policy.

In spite of these arguments we must remember that India was a colony. The foreign political activities of the colonial government can be termed as India's foreign policy but these were directed towards the larger interests of British imperialism. Here we may also draw your attention to the problem of suggesting the period or a specific year said to be the starting point of India's foreign policy. It is generally believed that the British East India Company began to evolve its foreign policy by establishing relation's with the Indian states. These states were compelled to surrender their foreign relations to be controlled by the paramount British power. The other starting point is 1818 which inaugurated an era of consolidation of the Raj by the Company. But in terms of international law, it was the transfer of power in 1858-59 from the Company to the British crown that gave to India's foreign policy an independent character, in form, but not in reality.

6.2 INTERNATIONAL SITUATION

When we scan the world situation during the period of our study, we find it favourable to the British. As far as the sea-coast and naval defences were concerned, Britain having defeated the Dutch, the French and earlier the Portuguese, was in a strong position. In the context of the defence of land frontier, the Russian and the Chinese affairs figured prominently in the diplomatic and military concerns of India during the whole of the nineteenth century. For proper understanding, it is necessary to explain the situation by dividing the subject matter into three sections.

6.2.1 British Supremacy in the Sub-Continent

After defeating the Portuguese and the Dutch in the early stages of British conquest of India, the British and the French were involved in a world-wide conflict for domination. From 1740 to 1800, the conflict between these two powers was primarily confined to South India. The French, though defeated in the Seven Years War, became a serious threat to the British Empire in India with the rise of Haider Ali and his son Tipu Sultan in Mysore and of Napoleon in France. Napoleon's Egyptian campaign and the consequent Battle of Nile (1798) and the French relations with Tipu Sultan threatened the British in India. With the defeat of Napoleon in Egypt in 1788 and of Tipu Sultan in India, the French menace disappeared altogether in the South.

After 1807 the scene of conflict shifted to North-West. After the French defeat in the naval vaunters, Napoleon planned his strategy to attack India via land route. The apprehension of joint operation of the French and the Persians in collaboration with the Russians alarmed the British Government in India and compelled Lord Minto, then Governor-General, immediately to send four diplomatic missions as a counter move to avert the impending threat. Malcolm was sent to Tehran, Elphinstone to Kabul, Seton to Sindh and Charles Metcalfe to Lahore. As a result of the efforts of these diplomatic missions, friendly treaties were concluded with the respective governments with a view to meeting the challenge of the French. These were the earliest steps taken up by the British Indian government in evolving India's foreign policy. Although the French threat disappeared with the defeat of Napoleon but it left a trail for the Russians to follow. It may, however be noted that the Portuguese small scale presence in Goa and that of the French in Pondicherry never posed any threat to the British in the nineteenth century. However, by the closing decades of the century, the French tried to establish a consulate in Burma to encourage insurgency. Similar fears were entertained when the French made efforts to establish a naval base at Oman, and the Germans envisaged the construction of the Berlin-Bagdad railway line.