Area: 3,03,35,000 sq. km (20.4% of total area Madagascar and other islands of Africa)

Population : 778.5 million

Latitude : 37031'N to 34052'S Longitude : 25011'W to 51024'E

Size : Second largest continent after Asia and nine times the size of India.

Situation : Situated to the south of Europe and south west of Asia. It is bound by the Meditarranean Sea in the north, the Atlantic Ocean in the west and southwest, the Indian Ocean in the east and the Red Sea in the northeast. Africa belongs to all the four hemispheres and bulk of the continent lies in tropics. It is joined to Asia by the narrow isthmus of Suez and separated from Eurasia at three diffirent points (Strait of Gibraltar, Suez Canal and Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb). The only continent which is crossed by Tropic of Cancer, Equator and Tropic of Capricorn.

Introduction:

Latitude : 70 12⁰ N to 830 38⁰ N Longitude : 120 08⁰ W to 1720 30⁰ W

Area : 2,42,38,000 sq. km (including Greenland and the Caribbean Islands).

Population : 13.6 million

Situation : North America is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean in the east, Gulf of Mexico in the south, the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Arctic Ocean in the north. To the north it is separated from the easternmost tip of Siberia by the Bering Strait. Size : third largest continent after Asia and Africa.

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Introduction:

Middle America consists of that stretch of land tt extends southward from the southern border of the United States to Colombia in South America. It includes:
(1) Mexico, the largest country in area and population;
(2) The small Central countries; and
3) Numerous islands, large and small in the Caribbean Sea or near it.

Central America:

Introduction:

South-east of Mexico, the North American continent tapers southwards through a narrow isthmus which connects North and South America and embraces seven small countries known collectively as Central America. Five of the countries Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Panama have sea coast on both the sides— the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean (Caribbean Sea). The other two countries have coasts on the one side only. EL Salvador has coast on the Pacific side and Belize on the Atlantic side. Geographic fragmentation is the major characteristic of Central America.

Caribbean Islands:

The West Indies or Caribbean Islands are hundreds of islands, large and small. They are sometimes referred to as the An Antilles. The Antilles themselves are subdivided into Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles. Many of the islands have become independent countries.

Atlantic Ocean Islands:

Amendment : is any type of change in the constitution, includes any type, addition, modification, substitution, repealing of any article of constitution.

Purpose of Amendment:

• Constitution is a mean & Man is an end.
• Constitution must be in a position to meet the changing aspiration of the people. Constitution must revolve under changing circumstances.

The Theory of Amendment can be linked with the thoughts of Thomas Paine “Future Generation can’t be limited by the contract entered into by previous generation.”

According to Nehru: “If you stop the Amendments, you are stopping the Growth of Nation.”

For Ambedkar also:

Constitution must have enough flexibility. According to Mulford Sebley: “Unamendable Constitution is the worst tyranny of its type.”

If constitution are not amended they have to be changed.

(Amendment are peaceful ways of bringing revolution.)

Framework

• Theory of Government.
• Whether a part of Constitution or not.
• Purpose of Preamble.
• Prominent Ideas in Preamble.

Whether Preamble is a part of Constitution or not.

Theoretically Preamble is treated as an Ornamental part rather than Essential part of Constitution of India.

CONCEPT OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

Right are necessary condition for fulfillment of life of man.

They are needed by individual to put himself against the arbitrary action of state & society.

Rights are also required by individual for his advancement.

Rights are important for existence of Democracy.

The concept of right establish concept of rule of Law & Constitution State according to Laski, Every state is known by the right it maintains.

Indian states grants its people various set of Rights. Rights given in chapter 3 are called FR. The status of FR is different from Legal rights.

(1) FR are sacred rights.

Constitution

• Constitution is a legally sanctified document, considering of the basic governing principles of the State and sets out the framework and the principal functions of the organs of the Government of a State.

Context of the Topic:

India represents a classical case of post colonial state. British colonialism has impacted Indian Constitution, Indian Political Systems, Indian Economy, Society, foreign Policy.

The colonial legacy of British rule must be understood in following context:

• Continuity of legacy

• Attempt by Indians to break the legacy

• Our report card (current scenario) with respect to the aims we outlined for ourselves during freedom struggle

(Article 31B)

1. The Bihar Land Reforms Act, 1950 (Bihar Act XXX of 1950).

(Article 246)
List I—Union List

1. Defence of India and every part thereof including preparation for defence and all such acts as may be conducive in times of war to its prosecution and after its termination to effective demobilisation.

2. Naval, military and air forces; any other armed forces of the Union. 2A. Deployment of any armed force of the Union or any other force subject to the control of the Union or any contingent or unit thereof in any State in aid of the civil power; powers, jurisdiction, privileges and liabilities of the members of such forces while on such deployment.

Articles 244(2) and 275(1)
Provisions as to the Administration of Tribal Areas in the States of Assam,
Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram

1. Autonomous districts and autonomous regions.—(1) Subject to the provisions of this paragraph, the tribal areas in each item of Parts I, II and IIA and in Part III of the table appended to paragraph 20 of this Schedule shall be an autonomous district.

(2) If there are different Scheduled Tribes in an autonomous district, the Governor may, by public notification, divide the area or areas inhabited by them into autonomous regions.

(3) The Governormay, by public notification,—

• include any area in any of the Parts of the said table,

• exclude any area from any of the Parts of the said table,

• create a new autonomous district,

• increase the area of any autonomous district,

• diminish the area of any autonomous district,

• unite two or more autonomous districts or parts thereof so as to form one autonomous district,

• alter the name of any autonomous district,

• define the boundaries of any autonomous district:

Provided that no order shall be made by the Governor under clauses (c), (d), (e) and (f) of this subparagraph except after consideration of the report of a Commission appointed under sub-paragraph (1) of paragraph 14 of this Schedule:

Provided further that any order made by the Governor under this subparagraph may contain such incidental and consequential provisions (including any amendment of paragraph 20 and of any item in any of the Parts of the said Table) as appear to the Governor to be necessary for giving effect to the provisions of the order.

2. Constitution of District Councils and Regional Councils.—(1) There shall be a District Council for each autonomous district consisting of not more than thirty members, of whom not more than four persons shall be nominated by the Governor and the rest shall be elected on the basis of adult suffrage. (2) There shall be a separate Regional Council for each area constituted an autonomous region under sub-paragraph (2) of paragraph 1 of this Schedule.

(3) EachDistrict Council and each Regional Council shall be a body corporate by the name respectively of “the District Council of (name of district)” and “the Regional Council of (name of region)”, shall have perpetual succession and a common seal and shall by the said name sue and be sued.

(4) Subject to the provisions of this Schedule, the administration of an autonomous district shall, in so far as it is not vested under this Schedule in any Regional Council within such district, be vested in the District Council for such district and the administration of an autonomous region shall be vested in the Regional Council for such region.

(5) In an autonomous district with Regional Councils, the District Council shall have only such powers with respect to the areas under the authority of the Regional Council asmay be delegated to it by the Regional Council in addition to the powers conferred on it by this Schedule with respect to such areas.
(6) The Governor shall make rules for the first constitution of District Councils and Regional Councils in consultation with the existing tribal Councils or other representative tribal organisations within the autonomous districts or regions concerned, and such rules shall provide for—

• the composition of the District Councils and Regional Councils and the allocation of seats therein;

• the delimitation of territorial constituencies for the purpose of elections to those Councils;

• the qualifications for voting at such elections and the preparation of electoral rolls therefore;

• the qualifications for being elected at such elections as members of such Councils;

• the term of office of members of Regional Councils;

• any other matter relating to or connected with elections or nominations to such Councils;

• the procedure and the conduct of business (including the power to act notwithstanding any vacancy) in the District and Regional Councils;

• the appointment of officers and staff of the District and Regional Councils.

(6A) The elected members of the District Council shall hold office for a term of five years from the date appointed for the first meeting of the Council after the general elections to the Council, unless the District Council is sooner dissolved under paragraph 16 and a nominated member shall hold office at the pleasure of the Governor:

Temporary power to Parliament to make laws with respect to certain matters in the State List as if they were matters in the Concurrent List.

369. 1. Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, Parliament shall, during a period of five years from the commencement of this Constitution, have power to make laws with respect to the following matters as if they were enumerated in the Concurrent List, namely:—

Short title.

393. This Constitution may be called the Constitution of India.

Commencement.

394. This article and articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392 and 393 shall come into force at once, and the remaining provisions of this  Constitution shall come into force on the twenty-sixth day of January, 1950, which day is referred to in this Constitution as the commencement of this Constitution.

Proclamation of Emergency.

352.

1. If the President is satisfied that a grave emergency exists whereby the security of India or of any part of the territory thereof is threatened, whether by war or external aggression or armed rebellion, he may, by Proclamation, make a declaration to that effect in respect of the whole of India or of such part of the territory thereof as may be specified in the Proclamation.